Socio/Political Terms

 

 

Glossary of Terms in Sociology
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Absolute monarchy -  A political system under which a king or queen has complete control of a country.
Achieved status -  A status that we either earn or choose and that is not subject to where or to whom we were born.
Agents of socialization -  People, groups, and experiences that influence our behavior and self-image.
Aggregate -  A collection of people who happen to be at the same place at the same time but have no other connection to one another.
Agricultural or agrarian society -  A society that raises crops by using animal-drawn plows.
Alienation -  The feeling of workers in a bureaucracy that they are being treated as objects rather than people.
American Dream -  The belief that all Americans, regardless of the conditions of their birth, have an equal chance to achieve success.
Anomie -  According to strain theory, the feeling of being disconnected from society that can occur when people aren’t provided with the institutionalized means to achieve their goals. The term was coined by Émile Durkheim.
Anticipatory socialization -  The learning of new norms and values in anticipation of a future role.
Apartheid -  A social system in which there is total separation of the races.
Appearance -  The way we look physically to other people.
Ascribed status -  A trait or characteristic people possess as a result of the circumstances of birth.
Assimilation -  The process whereby members of a group give up parts of their own culture in order to blend in to a new culture.
Authoritarianism -  A political system that does not allow citizens to participate in government.
Belief -  A specific idea that people feel to be true.
Blue-collar -  Another term for the working class.
Body language -  The ways in which we use our bodies consciously and unconsciously to communicate.
Bourgeoisie -  Karl Marx’s term for the owners of the means of production—factories, businesses, and equipment needed to produce wealth.
Bureaucracy -  According to Weber, a type of formal organization in which a rational approach is used for the handling of large tasks.
Capitalism -  The economic system in which the means of production are owned privately and individuals are free to keep the profits they make.
Capitalist class -  In industrialized societies, the rich and powerful and the owners of the means of production. It is also called the elite.
Caste system -  A system of stratification based on ascribed statuses.
Category -  A collection of people who share a particular characteristic but have nothing else in common.
Charismatic authority -  Authority that depends on the personal magnetism of one person, according to Weber’s power theory.
Church -  A religious group integrated with society.
Class system -  A system of stratification based on achieved statuses.
Clergy -  The middle stratum of the estate system of stratification, composed of Roman Catholic priests.
Clique -  An internal cluster or faction within a group.
Colonialism -  The tendency for a powerful country to invade a weaker country in order to exploit its resources by making it a colony.
Commoners -  The lowest stratum of the estate system of stratification, composed of the masses of people who spent their lives engaged in hard physical labor.
Communism -  An economic system similar to socialism in which all the means of production would be owned by everyone and all profits would be shared equally by everyone.
Conflict theory -  Marx’s theory that in any capitalist society there is eternal conflict between the owners of the means of production and the workers.
Conflict view of deviance -  The view that purports that equality in a capitalist society is an illusion. The owners of the means of production have a vested interest in maintaining the status quo by keeping the working class in a disadvantaged position.
Conformists -  According to Merton’s theory of goals and means, those who accept cultural goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them.
Constitutional monarchy -  A monarchy in which the reigning member of the royal family is the symbolic head of state but elected officials actually do the governing.
Control theory -  Walter Reckless’s theory that posits that when a person is tempted to engage in deviance, inner controls and outer controls can prevent him or her from doing so.
Counterculture -  A way of living that opposes the dominant culture.
Crime -  The violation of a written law.
Crime against the person -  An act of violence either threatened or perpetrated against a person.
Crime against property -  The theft of property or certain forms of damage against the property of another person.
Cult -  A religious group that is outside standard cultural norms.
Cultural diffusion -  The process whereby an aspect of culture spreads throughout a culture or from one culture to another.
Cultural relativism -  The attitude that in order to understand the traits of another culture, one must view them within the context of that culture.
Culture -  Everything made, learned, and shared by the members of a society.
Culture lag -  The tendency for changes in material culture to occur at a more rapid rate than changes in nonmaterial culture.
Culture of poverty -  The phrase that Oscar Lewis used to describe the idea that poor people do not learn the norms and values that can help them improve their circumstances and hence get trapped in a repeated pattern of poverty.
Culture shock -  The surprise, disorientation, and fear people can experience upon encountering a different culture.
Degradation ceremony -  Garfinkel’s term for the process whereby an individual with a spoiled identity is expelled from a group and stripped of his or her group membership.
Democracy -  A political system in which citizens periodically choose officials to run their government.
Deviance -  The violation of a norm.
Deviant subculture -  A way of living that differs from the dominant culture, in which members share a particular form of deviance.
Differential association -  Edwin Sutherland’s theory that posits that deviance is learned behavior.
Divine right of kings -  An ideology developed by the nobility during the Middle Ages that posited that the authority of the nobility came directly from God.
Dominant culture -  The culture held by the majority and/or by the most powerful group in a society.
Dramaturgy -  Goffman’s theory that life is like a never-ending play in which people are actors.
Dyad -  A group composed of two people.
Economy -  The institution responsible for the production and distribution of goods and services.
Education -  The institution responsible for preparing young people for a functional place in adult life and for transmitting culture from one generation to the next.
Ego -  According to Freud, the part of the mind that resolves conflicts between the id and the superego.
Endogamy -  Marriage between members of the same category, class, or group.
Estate system -  The three-tiered stratification system used during the Middle Ages.
Ethnocentrism -  The tendency to judge another culture by the standards of one’s own culture.
Ethnomethodology -  A theoretical perspective formulated by Garfinkel that examines how people’s background assumptions help them make sense of everyday situations.
Exogamy -  Marriage between members of different categories, classes, or groups.
Extended family -  Several generations or branches of a family.
Family -  The institution responsible for the rearing of children.
Feminization of poverty -  The phrase that describes the increasing number of female-headed households living at or below the poverty level.
Folkway -  A norm followed out of convenience or tradition.
Formal organization -  A secondary group that is organized to achieve specific goals and tends to be large and impersonal.
Gender role -  A set of behaviors, attitudes, and personality characteristics expected and encouraged of a person based on his or her sex.
Gender socialization -  The tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently.
Generalized other -  George Herbert Mead’s term for the internalization of the norms and values of a culture.
Global stratification -  The stratification of nations.
Globalization of capitalism -  The adoption of capitalism by countries around the world.
Goal displacement -  A formal organization’s displacement of one goal with another in order to continue to exist. It is also called goal replacement.
Goals and means -  Robert Merton’s theory that examines how members of a society adapt their goals to the means that society provides of achieving them.
Government -  The institution responsible for making and enforcing the rules of society and for regulating relations with other societies.
Group -  Two or more people who interact over time, have a sense of identity or belonging, and have norms that nonmembers do not have.
Group dynamics -  A term that implies that our thoughts and behavior are influenced by the groups of which we are members and, in turn, we influence the thought process and behavior of the group as a whole.
Groupthink -  A term coined by Irving Janis that refers to the tendency of people in positions of power to follow the opinions of the group, to the point that there is a narrow view of the issue at hand.
Halo effect -  The assumption that a physically attractive person also possesses other good qualities.
Health -  The well-being of people.
Holistic medicine -  A medical approach that involves learning about a patient’s physical environment and mental state.
Horticultural society -  A society in which hand tools are used to grow crops.
Hunting and gathering society -  A society in which people acquire food by hunting game and gathering edible plants.
Id -  According to Freud, the first part of the mind to develop and the part of the self responsible for the satisfaction of physical states.
Ideal type -  Max Weber’s theoretical model of how a formal organization should function.
Ideology -  A set of values that people devise to rationalize a particular social custom.
Illegitimate opportunity structures -  Cloward and Ohlin’s term for opportunities for crimes that are a basic part of our society.
Impression management -  Goffman’s term for the tendency of individuals to manipulate the impressions that others have of them.
In-group -  A group to which one belongs and to which one feels loyalty.
Indentured servitude -  A system of stratification in which an individual agrees to sell his or her body or labor to another for a specified period of time.
Industrial society -  A society that uses advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to run large machinery.
Industrializing nations -  Countries that are in the process of becoming industrialized; includes most of the countries of the former Soviet Union.
Inner controls -  According to control theory, the thought processes such as morality or a conscience that reside within people and that can prevent them from committing acts of deviance.
Innovators -  According to Robert Merton’s theory of goals and means, those who accept cultural goals but reject the institutional means of achieving them.
Institution -  A set of norms surrounding the carrying out of a function necessary for the survival of a society.
Institutionalized means -  Legitimate, socially approved ways that societies offer their members to achieve culturally approved goals.
Labeling theory -  A theory of deviance put forth by Howard Becker that claims that deviance is that which is so labeled.
Law -  A norm that is written down and enforced by an official agency.
Least industrialized nations -  Primarily agricultural nations that account for half of the land on Earth.
Looking-glass self -  Charles Horton Cooley’s theory of socialization, which posits that we form our self-images on the basis of what we perceive to be others’ views of us.
Macrosociology -  Sociological analysis focused on large-scale social forces.
Manner of interacting -  The attitudes that we convey in an attempt to get others to form certain impressions about us. According to Goffman, it is one of the sign vehicles we use to present ourselves to others, along with the setting and our appearance.
Mass media -  Communications media that direct messages and entertainment at a wide audience.
Mass society -  A large impersonal society in which individual achievement is valued over kinship ties and in which people often feel isolated from one another.
Master status -  A status we possess that overrides all other statuses and becomes the one by which we are known to others.
Material culture -  The tangible, visible items of a culture.
Matrilocality -  A social custom in which married couples live in the home of the wife’s family.
Medicine -  The institution responsible for defining and treating mental and physical problems among its members.
Melting pot -  A term used to refer to a pluralistic society in which people who originally come from different societies blend together to form a new society.
Meritocracy -  A system of stratification in which positions are given according to individual merit.
Microsociology -  Sociological analysis focused on social interaction between individuals.
Middle class -  The class that consists of people who earn their money by working at professional jobs, also called white-collar jobs.
Monarchy -  A political system in which a representative from one family controls the government and power is passed on through that family from generation to generation.
Monogamy -  Marriage between one man and one woman.
Monotheism -  Belief in a single deity.
Moral reasoning -  The reasons that people think the way they do about what’s right and wrong.
More -  A norm based on notions of morality.
Most industrialized nations -  Highly industrialized, capitalistic countries, including America, Canada, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Japan.
Multiculturalism -  A term often used instead of “melting pot” to denote a pluralistic society in which the original cultural heritages of its citizens are recognized and respected.
Multinational corporations -  Large corporations that do business in a number of different countries.
Negative sanction -  A socially constructed expression of disapproval.
Neocolonialism -  Michael Harrington’s term for the tendency of the most industrialized nations to exploit less developed countries politically and economically.
Neolocality -  A social custom in which married couples move to a new home of their own together.
Network -  A series of social ties that can be important sources of information, contacts, and assistance for its members.
New money -  The class that consists of people whose wealth has been around only for a generation or two.
Nobility -  The highest stratum of the estate system of stratification. Members had significant inherited wealth and did little or no discernible work.
Nonmaterial culture -  The intangible, invisible parts of a culture, such as values.
Norm -  A guideline or an expectation for behavior.
Nuclear family -  One or both parents and their children.
Oligarchy -  The rule of the many by the few.
Out-group -  A group to which one does not belong and to which one does not feel loyalty.
Outer controls -  According to control theory, individuals who encourage people not to stray into deviance.
Pastoral society -  A society that relies on the domestication and breeding of animals for food.
Patrilocality -  A social custom in which married couples live in the home of the husband’s family.
Peer group -  A social group in which members are usually the same age and have interests and social position in common.
Personal space -  The area immediately around one’s body that one can claim as one’s own.
Pluralistic society -  A society composed of many different kinds of people.
Polyandry -  Marriage between one woman and more than one man.
Polygamy -  Marriage between one man and more than one woman.
Polytheism -  Belief in many deities.
Positive sanction -  A socially constructed expression of approval.
Postindustrial society -  A society that features an economy based on services and technology, not production.
Poverty level -  An estimate set by the federal government of the minimum income that a family of four needs to survive.
Power -  According to Weber, the ability to achieve ends even in the face of resistance.
Power elite -  A term coined by C. Wright Mills that refers to his theory that the United States is actually run by a small group representing the most wealthy, powerful, and influential people in business, government, and the military.
Primary deviance -  According to Lemert, a deviant act that elicits little or no reaction from others.
Primary group -  A group in which there is frequent face-to-face contact, little task orientation, and emotional intimacy among members.
Primary socialization -  The learning that we experience from the people who raise us.
Primogeniture -  A law stipulating that only a first-born son could inherit his father’s wealth.
Proletariat -  Karl Marx’s term for the working masses.
Props -  The things used to decorate a setting, according to Goffman’s theory of impression management. Props also include manner of dress.
Rational-legal authority -  Authority that rests on rules and laws, according to Weber’s power theory.
Rationalization of society -  Weber’s theory that bureaucracies would gain increasing power over modern life, eventually governing almost every aspect of society.
Rebels -  According to Robert Merton’s theory of goals and means, those who reject both cultural goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them, but who replace them with goals and means of their own.
Recidivism -  The tendency of convicted criminals to repeat offenses.
Reference group -  The group to whom we compare ourselves for purposes of self-evaluation.
Reincarnation -  The belief that while the physical body dies, the soul of a person is immortal and goes on to be reborn into another body.
Religion -  The institution responsible for answering people’s larger questions and for explaining the seemingly inexplicable.
Resocialization -  The learning of new norms and values.
Retreatists -  According to Robert Merton’s theory of goals and means, those who reject cultural goals as well as the institutionalized means of achieving them.
Revolution -  A violent overthrow of the government by its citizens.
Ritualists -  According to Robert Merton’s theory of goals and means, those who reject cultural goals but accept the institutionalized means of achieving them.
Role -  A set of norms, values, and personality characteristics expected of a person based on the setting he or she is in.
Role conflict -  The conflict that can result from the competing demands of two or more roles.
Sanction -  A socially constructed expression of approval or disapproval.
Secondary deviance -  According to Lemert, repeated deviant behavior that is brought on by other people’s negative reactions to the original act of deviance.
Secondary group -  A group in which there is infrequent or short-term contact, little task orientation, and no emotional intimacy among members.
Sect -  A religious group that sets itself apart from society as a whole.
Self -  The part of a person’s personality consisting of self-awareness and self-image.
Setting -  The place where interaction takes place. According to Goffman, it is one of the sign vehicles we use to present ourselves to others, along with manner of interacting and appearance.
Sign vehicles -  Goffman’s term for the mechanisms we use to present ourselves to others. Sign vehicles consist of setting, appearance, and manner of interacting.
Significant other -  According to Charles Horton Cooley, a person in our lives whose opinions matter to us and who is in a position to influence our thinking.
Skilled worker -  A worker who is literate and has experience and expertise in specific areas of production or on specific kinds of machines.
Slavery -  A system of stratification in which one person owns another, usually for economic gain.
Social control -  The ways a society devises to encourage conformity to norms.
Social construction of reality -  A theory suggesting that the way in which we present ourselves is shaped by our life experiences, as well as by our interactions with others.
Social group -  Two or more people who interact and identify with each other.
Social integration -  The degree to which an individual feels connected to the other people in his or her group or community.
Social mobility -  Movement up or down the social hierarchy.
Society’s rewards -  The things a society holds in high esteem, such as wealth, power, and prestige.
Socialism -  A system under which resources and means of production are owned by the society as a whole, rights to private property are limited, the good of the whole society is stressed more than individual profit, and the government maintains control of the economy.
Socialization -  The process whereby we learn to become competent members of a group.
Society -  A collection of people with territory, interaction, and a culture.
Socioeconomic status (SES) -  A calculation based on a complex formula that takes into account education, occupation, and income.
Spoiled identity -  Goffman’s term for an identity that has been permanently ruined because of a severe stigma.
State capitalism -  A system under which resources and means of production are privately owned but closely monitored and regulated by the government.
Status -  The position that a person occupies in a particular setting.
Status inconsistency -  Any inconsistency between various statuses.
Status set -  The collection of all of our different statuses, from every setting in which we are a member.
Status symbol -  A sign or symbol that we wear or carry that represents a particular status.
Stereotype -  An assumption we make about a person or a group, often on the basis of incorrect or incomplete information.
Stigma -  Goffman’s term for a trait that we possess that causes us to lose prestige in the eyes of others.
Strain theory -  Robert Merton’s theory that posits that people experience strain and frustration when they are prevented from achieving culturally approved goals through institutionalized means.
Stratification -  A societal system in which there is an unequal distribution of society’s rewards and in which people are arranged hierarchically into layers according to how many of society’s rewards they possess.
Structural functionalist theory -  A sociological view of society as a complex unit made up of interrelated parts. Sociologists who apply this theory study social structure and social function.
Subculture -  A group that espouses a way of living that is different from that of the dominant culture.
Superego -  According to Freud, the part of the mind that encourages conformity to societal norms and values. It is also called the conscience.
Symbolic interactionist perspective -  A sociological framework that views society as a product of the everyday social interactions of individuals.
Taboo -  A norm so strongly held by a society that its violation brings extreme disgust.
Terrorism -  A politically motivated violent attack on civilians by an individual or group.
Thomas Theorem -  The theory espousing sociologist W. I. Thomas’s idea that “if a person perceives a situation as real, it is real in its consequences.”
Total institution -  According to Erving Goffman, a highly standardized institution in which all the residents’ actions are determined and monitored by authority figures.
Totalitarianism -  A political system under which the government maintains tight control over nearly all aspects of citizens’ lives.
Traditional authority -  Authority that rests on well-established cultural patterns, according to Weber’s power theory.
Triad -  According to Georg Simmel, a group composed of three people.
Upper class -  The highest social group, consisting of people with inherited wealth and a recognizable family name.
Urbanization -  The process by which the majority of a population comes to live within commuting distance of a major city.
Value -  A culturally approved belief about what is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable.
Victimless crime -  Crimes in which laws are violated but there is no identifiable victim.
Voluntary association -  A group we choose to join, in which members are united by the pursuit of a common goal.
War -  Armed conflict between nations or societies.
Welfare capitalism -  A system that features a market-based economy coupled with an extensive social welfare system that includes free health care and education for all citizens.
White collar -  Middle-class workers; so called because of the tendency of middle-class men to wear white shirts to work.
White-collar crime -  Nonviolent crime committed by the capitalist class during the course of their occupations.
Working class -  The class composed of people who sell their labor to a higher class. They may have had vocational or technical training and have jobs such as electrician or factory worker.
Working poor -  The class composed of people whose work leaves them vulnerable to falling below the poverty level.
World system theory -  Wallerstein’s theory that as societies industrialized, capitalism became the dominant economic system, leading to the globalization of capitalism.

Social Psychology | Glossary

acceptance  conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure.
adaptation-level phenomenon  the tendency to adapt to a given level of stimulation and thus to notice and react to changes from that level.
aggression  physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. In laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another's feelings. By this social psychological definition, one can be socially assertive without being aggressive.
altruism  a motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests.
arbitration  resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement.
attitude  a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone, exhibited in one's beliefs, feelings, or intended behavior.
attitude inoculation  exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available.
attractiveness  having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference.
attribution theory  the theory of how people explain others' behavior; for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations.
autokinetic phenomenon  self (auto) motion (kinetic). The apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark. Perhaps you have experienced this when thinking you have spotted a moving satellite in the sky, only to realize later that it was merely an isolated star.
availability heuristic  an efficient but fallible rule-of-thumb that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace.
bargaining  seeking an agreement through direct negotiation between parties to a conflict.
behavioral confirmation  a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to act in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations.
behavioral medicine  an interdisciplinary field that integrates and applies behavioral and medical knowledge about health and disease.
belief perserverance  persistence of one's initial conceptions, as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives.
bogus pipeline  a procedure that fools people into disclosing their attitudes. Participants are first convinced that a machine can use their psychological responses to measure their private attitudes. Then they are asked to predict the machine's reading, thus revealing their attitudes.
bystander effect  the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders.
catharsis  emotional release. The catharsis view of aggression is that aggressive drive is reduced when one "releases" aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression.
central route to persuasion  persuasion that occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.
channel of communication  the way the message is delivered-whether face to face, in writing, on film, or in some other way.
clinical psychology  the study, assessment, and treatment of people with psychological difficulties.
co-actors  co-participants working individually on a noncompetitive activity.
cognitive dissonance  tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions. For example, dissonance may occur when we realize that we have, with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another.
cohesiveness  a "we feeling"; the extent to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction for one another.
collectivism  giving priority to the goals of one's groups (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.
companionate love  the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined.
complementarity  the popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other. The questionable complementarity hypothesis proposes that people attract those whose needs are different, in ways that complement their own.
compliance  conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with social pressure while privately disagreeing. Obedience is acting in accord with a direct order.
confederate  an accomplice of the experimenter.
confirmation bias  a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions.
conflict  a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals.
conformity  a change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure.
correlational research  the study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables.
counterfactual thinking  imagining what might have happened, but didn't.
credibility  believability. A credible communicator is perceived as both expert and trustworthy.
crowding  a subjective feeling of not having enough space per person.
cult (also called new religious movement)  a group typically characterized by (1) distinctive ritual and beliefs related to its devotion to a god or a person, (2) isolation from the surrounding "evil" culture, and (3) a charismatic leader. (A sect, by contrast, is a spinoff from a major religion.)
culture  the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
deindividuation  loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad.
demand characteristics  cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected.
dependent variable  the variable being measured, so-called because it may depend on manipulations of the independent variable.
depressive realism  the tendency of mildly depressed people to make accurate rather than self-serving judgments, attributions, and predictions.
disclosure reciprocity  the tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner.
discrimination  unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.
displacement  the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target.
door-in-the-face technique  a strategy for gaining a concession. After someone first turns down a large request (the door-in-the-face), the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request.
dual attitudes  differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes toward the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may change with education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habits.
egoism  a motive (supposedly underlying all behavior) to increase one's own welfare. The opposite of altruism, which aims to increase another's welfare.
empathy  the vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes.
equal-status contact  contact on an equal basis. Just as a relationship between people of unequal status breeds attitudes consistent with their relationship, so do relationships between those of equal status. Thus, to reduce prejudice, interracial contact should be between persons equal in status.
equity  a condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Note: Equitable outcomes needn't always be equal outcomes.
ethnocentrism  a belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group, and a corresponding disdain for all other groups.
evaluation apprehension  concern for how others are evaluating us.
evolutionary psychology  the study of the evolution of behavior using principles of natural selection.
experimental realism  degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants.
experimental research  studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant).
explanatory style  one's habitual way of explaining life events. A negative, pessimistic, depressive explanatory style attributes failures to stable, global, and internal causes.
false consensus effect  the tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors.
false uniqueness effect  the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors.
field research  research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory.
foot-in-the-door phenomenon  the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
free riders  people who benefit from the group but give little in return.
frustration  the blocking of goal-directed behavior.
fundamental attribution error  The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior. (Also called correspondence bias, because we so often see behavior as corresponding to a disposition.).
gender  in psychology, the characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male and female. Because "sex" is a biological category, social psychologists sometimes refer to biologically based gender differences as "sex differences."
gender role  a set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and females.
GRIT  acronym for "graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction"-a strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions.
group  two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as "us."
group polarization  group-produced enhancement of members' preexisting tendencies; a strengthening of the members' average tendency, not a split within the group.
group-serving bias  explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group).
groupthink  "The mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action." -Irving Janis (1971).
health psychology  a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine.
heuristic  a rule-of-thumb strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments.
hindsight bias  the tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out. Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.
hostile aggression  aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself (also called affective aggression).
hypothesis  a testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events.
illusion of control  perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are.
illusory correlation  (1) Perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists. (2) A false impression that two variables correlate.
independent variable  the experimental factor that a researcher manipulates.
individualism  giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.
informational influence  conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people.
informed consent  an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
ingratiation  the use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor.
ingroup  "us"-a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity.
ingroup bias  the tendency to favor one's own group.
instinctive behavior  an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species.
instrumental aggression  aggression that is a means to some other end.
insufficient justification effect  reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient."
integrative agreements  win-win agreements that reconcile both parties' interests to their mutual benefit.
interaction  the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment).
just-world phenomenon  the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
kin selection  the idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes.
leadership  the process by which certain group members motivate and guide the group.
learned helplessness  the hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events.
locus of control  the extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts and actions or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces.
low-ball technique  a tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it.
matching phenomenon  the tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits.
mediation  an attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions.
mere-exposure effect  the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them.
mirror-image perceptions  reciprocal views of one another often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive.
misinformation effect  (1) incorporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it. (2) Witnessing an event, receiving misleading information about it, and then incorporating the "misinformation" into one's memory of the event.
moral exclusion  the perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness. Moral inclusion is regarding others as within one's circle of moral concern.
mundane realism  degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations.
naturalist fallacy  the error of defining what is good in terms of what is observable. For example: What's typical is normal; what's normal is good.
natural selection  the evolutionary process by which nature selects traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environmental niches.
need to belong  a motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions.
non-zero-sum games  games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose. (Also called mixed-motive situations.)
normative influence  conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to gain acceptance.
norms  rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior. (In a different sense of the word, norms also describe what most others do-what is normal.)
outgroup  "them"-a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their ingroup.
outgroup homogeneity effect  perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. Thus "they are alike; we are diverse."
overconfidence phenomenon  the tendency to be more confident than correct to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs.
overjustification effect  the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their action as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.
own-race bias  the tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race.
passionate love  a state of intense longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in one another, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it.
peripheral route to persuasion  persuasion that occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.
personal space  the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. Its size depends on our familiarity with whoever is near us.
persuasion  the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
physical-attractiveness stereotype  the presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good.
pluralistic ignorance  a false impression of how other people are thinking, feeling, or responding.
possible selves  images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future.
prejudice  a negative prejudgment of a group and its individual members.
primacy effect  other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence.
priming  activating particular associations in memory.
prosocial behavior  positive, constructive, helpful social behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior.
proximity  geographical nearness. Proximity (more precisely, "functional distance") powerfully predicts liking.
racism  (1) an individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race.
random assignment  the process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition. (Note the distinction between random assignment in experiments and random sampling in surveys. Random assignment helps us infer cause and effect. Random sampling helps us generalize to a population.)
random sample  survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion.
reactance  (1) a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom. Reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action. (2) The desire to assert one's sense of freedom.
realistic group conflict theory  the theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources.
recency effect  information presented last sometimes has the most influence. Recency effects are less common than primacy effects.
reciprocity norm  an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
regression toward the average  the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average.
relative deprivation  the perception that one is less well off than others to whom one compares oneself.
representativeness heuristic  the tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member.
reward theory of attraction  the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events.
role  a set of norms that define how people in a given social position ought to behave.
self-awareness  a self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions.
self-concept  a person's answers to the question "Who am I?".
self-disclosure  revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.
self-efficacy  a sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, one's sense of self-worth. A bombardier might feel high self-efficacy and low self-esteem.
self-esteem  a person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self worth.
self-handicapping  protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure.
self-monitoring  being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression.
self-perception theory  the theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs.
self-presentation  the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideals.
self-reference effect  the tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself.
self-schema  beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information.
self-serving bias  the tendency to perceive oneself favorably.
sexism  (1) an individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex.
sleeper effect  a delayed impact of a message. Occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it.
social comparison  evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself to others.
social-exchange theory  the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs.
social facilitation  (1) original meaning-the tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when others are present (2) current meaning-strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses owing to the presence of others.
social identity  the "we" aspect of our self-concept. The part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships. Examples: "I am Australian." "I am Catholic."
social learning theory  the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished.
social loafing  the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable.
social psychology  the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.
social representations  socially shared beliefs, and widely held ideas and values, including our assumptions and cultural ideologies. Our social representations help us make sense of our world.
social-responsibility norm  an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.
stereotype  a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information.
stereotype threat  a disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one's reputation into one's self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects.
subtyping  accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by splitting off a subgroup stereotype (such as "middle class Blacks" or "feminist women"). Subtyping protects stereotypes.
superordinate goal  a shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another.
theory  an integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events.
two-factor theory of emotion  arousal 3 label 5 emotion.
two-step flow of communication  the process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence others.



Glossary
Absolute poverty The condition of having too little income to buy the necessities-- food, shelter, clothing, health care.
Achieved status A social position (status) obtained through an individual's own talents and efforts.
Affirmative action The requirement that employers make special efforts to recruits hire and promote qualified members of previously excluded groups including women and minorities.
Aggregate A collection of unrelated people who do not know one another but who may occupy a common space--for example, a crowd of people crossing a city street.
Agrarian societies Societies in which large scale cultivation using plows and draft animals is the primary means of subsistence.
Alienation The separation or estrangement of individuals from themselves and from others.
Amalgamation The biological as well as cultural assimilation (merging) of racial or ethnic groups.
Anomalies In science observations or problems that cannot be explained or solved in terms of a prevailing paradigm.
Anomie A breakdown or confusion in the norms, values, and culture of a group or a society. A condition of relative normlessness.
Anomie theory The theory suggesting that deviance and crime occur when there is an acute gap between cultural norms and goals and the socially structured opportunities for individuals to achieve those goals.
Anticipatory socialization The process of taking on the attitudes values and behaviors of a status or role one expects to occupy in the future.
Apartheid The recent policy of racial separation in South Africa enforced by legal political and military power.
Ascribed status A social position (status) such as sex, race, and social class that a person acquires at birth.
Assimilation The merging of minority and majority groups into one group with a come mon culture and identity.
Association A group of people bound together by common goals and rules, but not necessarily by close personal ties.
Athletics A form of sport that is closer to work than to play.
Authority Power regarded as legitimate.
Autocracy Rule or government concentrated in a single ruler or group of leaders who are willing to use force to maintain control.

Baby boom The people who were born in the United States between 1946 and 1965. This group represented a sharp increase in birth rates and in the absolute number of births compared to pre-1946 levels.
Bias The influence of a scientist's personal values and attitudes on scientific observations and conclusions.
Bicultural The capacity to understand and function well in more than one cultural group.
Birth rate Number of births per year per 1000 women 15 to 44 years old.
Bureaucracy A large-scale formal organization with centralized authority, a hierarchical chain of command, explicit rules and procedures, and an emphasis on formal positions rather than on persons.

Calling The idea in certain branches of ascetic Protestantism that one can live acceptably to God by fulfilling the obligations imposed by one's secular position in the world.
Capitalism A form of economic organization in which private individuals accumulate and invest capital, own the means of production, and control profits.
Caste system A closed system of social stratification in which prestige and social relationships are based on hereditary position at birth.
Centrally planned economy An economic system that includes public ownership of or control over all productive resources and whose activity is planned by the government.
Charisma The exceptional mystical or even supernatural quality of personality attributed to a person by others. Literally, "the gift of grace."
Charismatic leader An individual who enlists the strong emotional support of followers through personal and seemingly supernatural qualities.
Charter The capacity of certain schools to confer special rights on their graduates.
Church A formally organized, institutionalized religious organization with formal and traditional religious doctrine, beliefs, and practices.
City A relatively permanent settlement of large numbers of people who do not grow or gather their own food.
Civil law The branch of law that deals largely with wrongs against the individual.
Civil religion The interweaving of religious and political symbols in public life.
Class Position in a social hierarchy based on prestige and/or property ownership.
Class conflict The struggle between competing classes, specifically between the class that owns the means of production and the class or classes that do not.
Class consciousness The sense of common class position and shared interests held by members of a social class.
Class system A system of stratification based primarily on the unequal ownership and control of economic resources.
Closed system In organizational theory, the degree to which an organization is shut off from its environment.
Coercion A form of social interaction in which one is made to do something through the use of social pressure, threats, or force.
Cognitive development The systematic improvement of intellectual ability through a series of stages.
Cognitive development theory Suggests that individuals try to pattern their lives and experiences to form a reasonably consistent picture of their beliefs, actions, and values.
Cohort Persons who share something in common, usually being born in the same year or time period.
Commitment Willingness of members of a group to do what is needed to maintain the group.
Community A collection of people in a geographical area; may also include the idea that the collection has a social structure and a sense of community spirit or belonging.
Comparable worth A policy of equal pay for men and women doing similar work, even if the jobs are labeled differently by sex.
Competition A goal-directed form of social interaction in which the goals or objects pursued are limited, so not all competitors can attain them. Competitive behavior is governed by rules and limitations (restraints) .
Complementary marriages Marriages in which husband and wife take distinctly separate family roles.
Concentric-zone theory A theory of urban development holding that cities grow around a central business district in concentric zones, with each zone devoted to a different land use.
Concept A formal definition of what is being studied.
Conflict A form of social interaction involving direct struggle between individuals or groups over commonly valued resources or goals. Differs from competition because individuals are more interested in defeating an opponent than in achieving a goal.
Conflict approach One of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology: emphasizes the importance of unequal power and conflict in society. Weberian conflict theorists stress inequality and conflict based on class, status, power; Marxian theorists emphasize conflict and inequality based on ownership of the means of production.
Conformity Going along with the norms or behaviors of a group.
Conjugal family A form of family organization centered around the husband-wife relationship rather than around blood relationships.
Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (CMSA) A "supercity" with more than one million people. There were 21 such cities in the United States in 1984.
Contact hypothesis The theory that people of different racial groups who became acquainted would be less prejudiced toward one another.
Contagion theory Le Bon's theory that the anonymity people feel in a crowd makes them susceptible to the suggestions of fanatical leaders, and that emotions can sweep through such a crowd like a virus.
Content analysis A research method used to describe and analyze in an objective and systematic way the content of literature, speeches, or other media presentations. The method helps to identify cultural themes or trends.
Content of socialization The ideas, beliefs, values, knowledge, and so forth that are presented to people who are being socialized.
Contest mobility The educational pattern in which selection for academic and university education is delayed and children compete throughout their schooling for high positions.
Context of socialization The setting or arena within which socialization occurs.
Continued subjugation The use of force and ideology by one group to retain domination over another group.
Control group A group that is not exposed to the independent variable of interest to a researcher but whose members' backgrounds and experience are otherwise like those of the experimental group that is exposed to the independent variable.
Controlling for In research, the effort to hold constant factors that might be influencing observed changes in the dependent variable.
Convergence theory A theory suggesting that modernizing nations come to resemble one another over time. In collective behavior, a theory suggesting that certain crowds attract particular types of people, who may behave irrationally.
Cooperation A form of social interaction involving collaborative effort among people to achieve a common goal.
Cooptation A social process by which people who might otherwise threaten the stability or existence of an organization are brought into the leadership or policy-making structure of that organization.
Correlation An observed association between a change in the value of one variable and a change in the value of another variable.
Counterculture A subculture whose norms and values sharply contradict the dominant norms and values of the society in which it occurs.
Creationism A theory that sees all major types of living things, including people, as having been made by the direct creative action of God in six days.
Credential The educational degree or certificate used to determine a person's eligibility for a position.
Crime A behavior prohibited by law.
Criminal law Law enacted by recognized political authorities that prohibits or requires certain behaviors.
Criteria for inferring causality Evidence that two variables are correlated and that the hypothesized cause preceded the hypothesized effect in time, as well as evidence eliminating rival hypotheses.
Crude birth rate The total number of live births per 1000 persons in a population within a particular year.
Crude death rate The number of deaths per 1000 persons occurring within a one-year period in a particular population.
Cult An organized group of people who together act out religious feelings, attitudes, and relationships; may focus on an unusual form of worship or belief.
Cultural capital Symbolic wealth socially defined as worthy of being sought and possessed.
Cultural change Modifications or transformations of a culture's customs, values, ideas, or artifacts.
Cultural determinism The view that the nature of a society is shaped primarily by the ideas and values of the people living in it.
Cultural division of labor A situation in which a person's place in the occupational world is determined by his or her cultural markers (such as ethnicity).
Cultural imposition The forcing of members of one culture to adopt the practices of another culture.
Cultural relativism The view that the customs and ideas of a society must be viewed within the context of that society.
Cultural revolution The repudiation of many existing cultural elements and the substitution of new ones.
Cultural universals Cultural features, such as the use of language, shared by all human societies.
Culture The common heritage shared by the people of a society, consisting of customs, values, language, ideas, and artifacts.
Culture lag The time difference between the introduction of material innovations and resulting changes in cultural practices.
Culture of poverty A distinctive culture thought to develop among poor people and characterized by failure to delay gratification, fatalism, and weak family and community ties.
Culture pattern theory In the sociology of sport, a theory that explains aggression and violence in sport as learned behavior that mirrors the degree of aggression and violence in the society.
Cyclical theories Theories of social change suggesting that societies follow a certain life course, from vigorous and innovative youth to more materialistic maturity and then to decline.

Deduction Reasoning from the general to the specific.
Defining the situation The socially created perspective that people apply to a situation.
Democracy A form of political organization in which power resides with the people and is exercised by them.
Democratic-collective organization An organization in which authority is placed in the group as a whole, rules are minimized, members have considerable control over their work, and job differentiation is minimized.
Demographic transition The demographic change experienced in Western Europe and North America since the industrial revolution in which the birth rate has declined so that it is about equal to the death rate.
Demography The scientific study of population size, composition, and distribution as well as patterns of change in those features.
Denomination One of a number of religious organizations in a society with no official state church. Has some formal doctrines, beliefs, and practices, but tolerates diverse religious views.
Dependency theory A theory about the place of developing nations in the world economy suggesting that major industrial nations take advantage of the cheap labor and raw materials of developing nations and hence are reluctant to see them become industrialized.
Dependent variable The variable that occurs or changes in a patterned way due to the presence of, or changes in, another variable or variables.
Descriptive study A research study whose goal is to describe the social phenomena being studied.
Deskilling The process of breaking down jobs into less complex segments that require less knowledge and judgment on the part of workers.
Deterrence theory The view that certain qualities of punishment-- such as certainty, swiftness, and severity-- will help prevent others from committing crimes that have been so punished.
Deviance Behaviors or characteristics that violate important social norms.
Deviant career The regular pursuit of activities regarded by the individual and by others as deviant.
Differential association A theory that attributes the existence of deviant behavior to learning from friends or associates.
Differentiation, functional The division of labor or of social roles within a society or an organization.
Differentiation, rank The unequal placement and evaluation of various social positions.
Diffusion The spread of inventions and discoveries from one group or culture to another on a voluntary basis; a source of cultural change.
Discovery The uncovering of something that existed but was unknown; a source of cultural change.
Discrimination The unequal and unfair treatment of individuals or groups on the basis of some irrelevant characteristic, such as race, ethnicity, religion, sex, or social class.
Division of labor The assignment of specialized tasks to various members of a group, organization, community, or society.
Dominant status One social position that overshadows the other social positions an individual occupies.
Domination The control of one group or individual by another.
Double standard A set of social norms that allows males greater freedom of sexual expression, particularly before marriage, than females.
Dramaturgical analysis An approach to social situations developed by Erving Goffman in which they are examined as though they were theatrical productions.
Dual-career families Families in which both husband and wife have careers.
Dual-career responsibilities The responsibilities of women who are wives as well as workers‹ often used to explain why women earn less.
Dual economy The conceptual division of the private sector of the economy into monopoly (core) and competitive (periphery) sectors.
Dyad A group composed of two people.
Dysfunction Any consequence of a social system that disturbs or hinders the integration, adjustment, or stability of the system.

Ecological paradigm A theory of land use and living patterns that examines the interplay among economic functions, geographical factors, demography, and the replacement of one group by another.
Ecological succession In urban sociology, the replacement of one group by another over time.
Ecological view An approach to the study of culture or other social phenomena that emphasizes the importance of examining climate, food and water supplies, and existing enemies in the environments.
Ecology The scientific study of how organisms relate to one another and to their environments.
Economic core The sector of the economy characterized by large, generally very profitable, oligopolistic firms that are national or multinational in scope; also called the monopoly sector.
Economic growth An increase in the amount of goods and services produced with the same amount of labor and resources.
Economic institution The pattern of roles, norms, and activities organized around the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services in a society.
Economic periphery The sector of the economy characterized by small, local, barely profitable firms; also called the competitive sector.
Ecosystem A system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with its environment.
Education The process, in school or beyond, of transmitting a society's knowledge, skills, values, and behaviors.
Egalitarian marriage A family in which husband and wife share equally in family decision making.
Ego In Freudian theory, a concept referring to the conscious, rational part of the personality structure, which mediates between the impulses of the id and the rules of society.
Elderly dependency ratio The ratio between the number of the elderly (65 and over) and the number of working-age people (ages 18 to 64).
Emergent norm theory A theory of collective behavior suggesting that people move to form a shared definition of the situation in relatively normless situations.
Emotion work An individual's effort to change an emotion or feeling to one that seems to be more appropriate to a given situation.
Equilibrium In functionalist theory, the view that the parts of a society fit together into a balanced whole.
Ethnic group A group that shares a common cultural tradition and sense of identity.
Ethnocentrism The tendency to see one's own culture as superior to all others.
Ethnography A detailed study based on actual observation of the way of life of a human group or society.
Ethnomethodology The study of the methods used by individuals to communicate and make sense of their everyday lives as members of society. Many ethnomethodologists focus on the study of language and everyday conversation.
Evangelicalism A form of Protestantism that stresses the preaching of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the validity of personal conversion, the Bible as the basis for belief, and active preaching of the faith.
Evolutionary theories Theories of social change that see societies as evolving from simpler forms to more complex ones. In biology, the theory that living organisms develop new traits that may aid their adaptation or survival.
Exchange A form of social interaction involving trade of tangibles (objects) or intangibles (sentiments) between individuals.
Exchange theory An interpretive perspective that explains social interaction on the basis of the exchange of various tangible or intangible social rewards.
Experiment A carefully controlled situation where the independent variable is manipulated while everything else remains the same; the aim is to see whether the dependent variable will change.
Experimental group In research, the group of individuals exposed to the independent variable that is being introduced by the experimenter.
Explanatory study A research study with the goal of explaining how or why things happen the way they do in the social world.
Expressive A type of role that involves the showing of emotional feelings or preferences in interpersonal relationships.
Expressive leader A group leader whose role in the group is to help maintain stability through joking, mediating conflicts, and otherwise reducing tension.
Extended family A family in which relatives from several generations live together.

Face-work A term used by Goffman to refer to the actions taken by individuals to make their behavior appear consistent with the image they want to present.
Fads Striking behaviors that spread rapidly and that, even though embraced enthusiastically, remain popular for only a short time.
Family Two or more persons who are related by blood, marriage, adoption, or serious long-term commitment to each other, and who live together. They usually form an economic unit, and adult members care for the dependent children.
Fashion A socially approved but temporary style of appearance or behavior.
Flow An experience of total involvement in one's present activity.
Folkways Social norms to which people generally conform, although they receive little pressure to do so.
Formal organizations Highly structured groups with specific objectives and usually clearly stated rules and regulations.
Formal sanction A social reward or punishment that is administered in an organized, systematic way, such as receiving a diploma or getting a fine.
Functional approach A theoretical approach that analyzes social phenomena in terms of their functions in a social system.
Functional equivalent A feature or process in society that has the same function (consequence) as some other feature or process
Functions The consequences of social phenomena for other parts of society or for society as a whole.
Fundamentalism A form of religious traditionalism characterized by the literal interpretation of religious texts, a conception of an active supernatural, and clear distinctions between sin and salvation.

Game A form of play involving competitive or cooperative interaction in which the outcome is determined by physical skill, strength, strategy, or chance.
Gemeinschaft A term used by Tonnies to describe a small, traditional, community-centered society in which people have close, personal, face-to-face relationships and value social relationships as ends in themselves.
Gender The traits and behaviors that are socially designated as "masculine" or "feminine" in a particular society.
Gender differences Variations in the social positions, roles, behaviors, attitudes, and personalities of men and women in a society.
Gender gap Differences in the way men and women vote.
Gender-role expectations People's beliefs about how men and women should behave.
Gender stratification The hierarchical ranking of men and women and their roles in terms of unequal ownership, power, social control, prestige, and social rewards.
Generalized other A general idea of the expectations, attitudes, and values of a group or community.
Genocide The destruction of an entire population.
Gentrification The movement of middle-class and upper-middle-class persons (usually white) into lower-income, sometimes minority urban areas.
Gesellschaft A term used by Tonnies to describe an urban industrial society in which people have impersonal, formal, contractual, and specialized relationships and tend to use social relationships as a means to an end.
Global economy An economy in which the economic life and health of one nation depends on what happens in other nations.
Green revolution The improvement in agricultural production based on higher-yielding grains and increased use of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation.
Groups Collections of people who share some common goals and norms and whose relationships are usually based on interactions.
Groupthink The tendency of individuals to follow the ideas or actions of a group.

Health maintenance organizations (HMOs) Organizations that people pay a fee to join in return for access to a range of health services.
Heterosexual A person whose preferred partner for erotic, emotional, and sexual interaction is someone of the opposite sex.
Hierarchy The arrangement of positions in a rank order, with those below reporting to those above.
Hispanics A general term referring to Spanish-speaking persons. It includes many distinct ethnic groups.
Homosexual Someone who is emotionally, erotically, and physically attracted to persons of his or her own sex.
Horizontal mobility Movement from one social status to another of about equal rank in the social hierarchy.
Horticultural societies Societies in which the cultivation of plants with hoes is the primary means of subsistence.
Hospice An organization designed to provide care and comfort for terminally ill persons and their families.
Human-capital explanation The view that the earnings of different workers vary because of differences in their education or experience.
Hunting and gathering societies Societies that obtain food by hunting animals, fishing, and gathering fruits, nuts, and grains. These societies do not plant crops or have domesticated animals.
Hybrid economy An economic system that blends features of both centrally planned and capitalist (market) economies. Hyperinflation Anextreme form of inflation.
Hypothesis A tentative statement asserting a relationship between one factor and something else (based on theory, prior research, or general observation).

Id In Freudian theory, a concept referring to the unconscious instinctual impulses-- for instance, sexual or aggressive impulses.
Ideal values Values that people say are important to them, whether or not their behavior supports those values.
Identification theories Views suggesting that children learn gender roles by identifying with and copying the same-sex parent.
Ideology A system of ideas that reflects, rationalizes, and defends the interests of those who believe in it.
Impression management A term used by Goffman to describe the efforts of individuals to influence how others perceive them.
Incest Sexual intercourse with close family members.
Incest taboo The prohibition of sexual intercourse between fathers and daughters, mothers and sons, and brothers and sisters.
Income The sum of money wages and salaries (earnings) plus income other than earnings.
Independent variable The variable whose occurrence or change results in the occurrence or change of another variable; the hypothesized cause of something else.
Individualism A belief in individual rights and responsibilities.
Induction Reasoning from the particular to the general.
Industrialization The shift within a nation's economy from a primarily agricultural base to a manufacturing base.
Industrialized societies Societies that rely on mechanized production, rather than on human or animal labor, as the primary means of subsistence.
Inflation An increase in the supply of money in circulation that exceeds the rate of economic growth, making money worth less in relation to the goods and services it can buy.
Informal sanction A social reward or punishment that is given informally through social interaction, such as an approving smile or a disapproving frown.
Innovation The discovery or invention of new ideas, things, or methods; a source of cultural change.
Instinct A genetically determined behavior triggered by specific conditions or events.
Institution of science The social communities that share certain theories and methods aimed at understanding the physical and social worlds.
Institutionalization of science The establishment of careers for practicing scientists in major social institutions.
Institutionalized Social practices that have become established, patterned, and predictable and that are supported by custom, tradition, and/or law.
Institutions The patterned and enduring roles, statuses, and norms that have formed around successful strategies for meeting basic social needs.
Instrumental A type of role that involves problem-solving or task-oriented behavior in group or interpersonal relationships.
Instrumental leader A group leader whose role is to keep the group's attention directed to the task at hand.
Interest group A group of people who work to influence political decisions affecting them.
Intergenerational mobility A vertical change of social status from one generation to the next.
Interlocking directorates The practice of overlapping memberships on corporate boards of directors.
Intermittent reinforcement In learning theory, the provision of a reward sometimes but not always when a desired behavior is shown.
Internalization The process of taking social norms, roles, and values into one's own mind.
Interpretive approach One of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology; focuses on how individuals make sense of the world and react to the symbolic meanings attached to social life.
Intragenerational mobility A vertical change of social status experienced by an individual within his or her own lifetime.
Invention An innovation in material or nonmaterial culture, often produced by combining existing cultural elements in new ways; a source of cultural change.
"I" portion of the self In George Herbert Mead's view, the spontaneous or impulsive portion of the self.
IQ (intelligence quotient) test A standardized set of questions or problems designed to measure verbal and numerical knowledge and reasoning.
"Iron law of oligarchy" In Robert Michels' view, the idea that power in an organization tends to become concentrated in the hands of a small group of leaders.

Keynesian economics The economic theory advanced by John Maynard Keynes, which holds that government intervention, through deficit spending, may be necessary to maintain high levels of employment.
Kinship Socially defined family relationships, including those based on common parentage, marriage, or adoption.

Labeling theory A theory of deviance that focuses on the process by which some people are labeled deviant by other people (and thus take on deviant identities) rather than on the nature of the behavior itself.
Labor-market segmentation The existence of two or more distinct labor markets, one of which is open only to individuals of a particular gender or ethnicity.
Laissez-faire economics The economic theory advanced by Adam Smith, which holds that the economic system develops and functions best when left to market forces, without government intervention.
Language Spoken or written symbols combined into a system and governed by rules.
Latent function The unintended and/or unrecognized function or consequence of some thing or process in a social system.
Law The system of formalized rules established by political authorities and backed by the power of the state for the purpose of controlling or regulating social behavior.
Learning theory In psychology, the theory that specific human behaviors are acquired or forgotten as a result of the rewards or punishments associated with them.
Legal protection The protection of minority-group members through the official policy of a governing unit.
Legitimate In reference to power, the sense by people in a situation that those who are exercising power have the right to do so.
Lesbian A woman who is emotionally, erotically, and physically attracted to other women.
Life chances The probabilities of an individual having access to or failing to have access to various opportunities or difficulties in society.
Life course The biological and social sequence of birth, growing up, maturity, aging, and death.
Life-course analysis An examination of the ways in which different stages of life influence socialization and behavior.
Life expectancy The average years of life anticipated for people born in a particular year.
Life-style Family, child-bearing, and educational attitudes and practices; personal values; type of residence; consumer, political, and civic behavior; religion.
Life table A statistical table that presents the death rate and life expectancy of each of a series of age-sex categories for a particular population.
Line job A job that is part of the central operations of an organization rather than one that provides support services for the operating structure.
Lobbying The process of trying to influence political decisions so they will be favorable to one's interests and goals.
Location In Kanter's view, a person's position in an organization with respect to having control over decision making.
Looking-glass self The sense of self an individual derives from the way others view and treat him or her.

Macro level An analysis of societies that focuses on large-scale institutions, structures, and processes.
Magic According to Malinowski, "a practical art consisting of acts which are only means to a definite end expected to follow."
Manifest function The intended function or consequence of some thing or process in a social system.
Marriage A social institution that recognizes and approves the sexual union of two or more individuals and includes a set of mutual rights and obligations.
Marriage rate Number of marriages in a year per 1000 single women 15 to 44 years old.
Marriage squeeze A situation in which the eligible individuals of one sex outnumber the supply of potential marriage partners of the other sex.
Marxian approach A theory that uses the ideas of Karl Marx and stresses the importance of class struggle centered around the social relations of economic production.
Mass hysteria Widely felt fear and anxiety.
Mass media Widely disseminated forms of communication, such as books, magazines, radio, television, and movies.
Matthew effect The social process whereby one advantage an individual has is likely to lead to additional advantages.
Mean, arithmetic The sum of a set of mathematical values divided by the number of values; a measure of central tendency in a series of data.
Median The number that cuts a distribution of figures in half; a positional measure of central tendency in a series of data.
Medicaid A federal-state matching program that provides medical assistance to certain low income persons.
Medicare A federal health insurance program. Individuals are eligible if they receive Social Security benefits, federal disability benefits, or sometimes if they have end-stage kidney disease.
"Me" portion of the self In George Herbert Mead's view, the portion of the self that brings the influence of others into the individual's consciousness.
Method of comparison An approach that compares one subgroup or society with another one for the purpose of understanding social differences.
Methodology The rules, principles, and practices that guide the collection of evidence and the conclusions drawn from it.
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) A geographical area containing either one city with 50,000 or more residents or an urban area of at least 50,000 inhabitants and a total population of at least 100,000 (except in New England where the required total is 75,000).
Micro level An analysis of societies that focuses on small-scale process, such as how individuals interact and how they attach meanings to the social actions of others.
Migration The relatively permanent movement of people from one area to another.
Millenarian movements Social movements based on the expectation that society will be suddenly transformed through supernatural intervention.
Minority group Any recognizable racial, religious, ethnic, or social group that suffers from some disadvantage resulting from the action of a dominant group with higher social status and greater privileges.
Mode The value that occurs most often in a series of mathematical values.
Modeling Copying the behavior of admired people.
Modernization The economic and social transformation that occurs when a traditional agricultural society becomes highly industrialized.
Monopoly The exclusive control of a particular industry, market, service, or commodity by a single organization.
Mores Strongly held social norms, a violation of which causes a sense of moral outrage.
Mortality rate The number of deaths per thousand in a population.
Multinational corporation A corporation that locates its operations in a number of nations.
Multiple-nuclei theory A theory of urban development holding that cities develop around a number of different centers, each with its own special activities.

Nation A relatively autonomous political grouping that usually shares a common language and a particular geography.
Nation-state A social organization in which political authority overlaps a cultural and geographical community.
Negative sanctions Actions intended to deter or punish unwanted social behaviors.
Negotiation A form of social interaction in which two or more parties in conflict or competition arrive at a mutually satisfactory agreement.
Network See Social network.
Nomadic Societies that move their residences from place to place.
Nonverbal communication Visual and other meaningful symbols that do not use language.
Norm A shared rule about acceptable or unacceptable social behavior.
Normal science A term used by Kuhn to describe research based on one or more past scientific achievements that are accepted as a useful foundation for further study.
Nuclear family A family form consisting of a married couple and their children.

Objectivity Procedures researchers follow to minimize distortions in observation or interpretation due to personal or social values.
Occupation A position in the world of work that involves specialized knowledge and activities.
Occupational segregation The concentration of workers by gender or ethnicity into certain jobs but not others.
Oligarchy The rule of the many by the few.
Oligopoly The control of a particular industry, market, service, or commodity by a few large organizations.
Open system In organizational theory, the degree to which an organization is open to and dependent on its environment.
Operationalization In research, the actual procedures or operations conducted to measure a variable.
Opportunity In an organization, the potential that a particular position contains for the expansion of work responsibilities and rewards.
Organization A social group deliberately formed to pursue certain values and goals.
Organizational ritualism A form of behavior in organizations, particularly in bureaucracies, in which people follow the rules and regulations so closely that they forget the purpose of those rules and regulations.
Organizational waste The inefficient use of ideas, expertise, money, or material in an organization.

Panic A frightened response by an aggregate of people to an immediate threat.
Paradigm In the sociology of science, a coherent tradition of scientific law, theory, and assumptions that forms a distinct approach to problems.
Parallel marriage When husband and wife both work and share household tasks.
Participant observation A research method in which the researcher does observation while taking part in the activities of the social group being studied.
Pastoral societies Societies in which the raising and herding of animals such as sheep, goats, and cows is the primary means of subsistence.
Patriarchal family A form of family organization in which the father is the formal head of the family.
Peer group Friends and associates of about the same age and social status.
Play Spontaneous activity undertaken freely for its own sake yet governed by rules and often characterized by an element of make-believe.
Pluralism In ethnic relations, the condition that exists when both majority and minority groups value their distinct cultural identities, and at the same time seek economic and political unity. In political sociology, the view that society is composed of competing interest groups, with power diffused among them.
Policy research Research designed to assess alternative possibilities for public or social action, in terms of their costs and/or consequences.
Political economy model A theory of land use that emphasizes the role of political and economic interests.
Political order The institutionalized system of acquiring and exercising power.
Political party An organized group of people that seeks to control or influence political decisions through legal means.
Population In demography, all the people living in a given geographic area. In research, the total number of cases with a particular characteristic.
Population exclusion The efforts of a society to prevent ethnically different groups from joining it.
Population transfer The efforts of a dominant ethnic group to move or remove members of a minority ethnic group from a particular area.
Positive sanctions Rewards for socially desired behavior.
Positivist An approach to explaining human action that does not take into account the individual's interpretation of the situation.
Postindustrial society A term used by Daniel Bell to refer to societies organized around knowledge and planning rather than around industrial production.
Power The capacity of an individual group to control or influence the behavior of others, even in the face of opposition.
Power elite According to Mills, a closely connected group of the corporate rich, political leaders, and military commanders who decide most key social and political issues.
Prejudice A "prejudged" unfavorable attitude toward the members of a particular group, who are assumed to possess negative traits.
Prestige A social recognition, respect, and deference accorded individuals or groups based on their social status.
Primary deviance Deviant behavior that is invisible to others, short- lived, or unimportant, and therefore does not contribute to the public labeling of an individual as being deviant.
Primary economic sector The sector of an economy in which natural resources are gathered or extracted.
Primary group A social group characterized by frequent face-to-face interaction, the commitment and emotional ties members feel for one another, and relative permanence.
Principle of cumulative advantage A process whereby the positive features of some institutions help to generate further benefits for them.
Privatization The tendency of families in industrial societies to turn away from the community and workplace toward a primary focus on privacy, domesticity, and intimacy.
Processes of socialization Those interactions that convey to persons being socialized how they are to speak, behave, think, and feel.
Profession AIR occupation that rests on a theoretical body of knowledge and thus requires specialized training usually recognized by the granting of a degree or credential.
Projection A psychological process of attributing ones own unacceptable feelings or desires to other people to avoid guilt and self-blame.
Property The rights and obligations a group or individual has in relation to an object, resource, or activity.
Proposition A statement about how variables are related to each other.
Prostitution The selling of sexual favors.

Race A classification of humans into groups based on distinguishable physical characteristics that may form the basis for significant social identities.
Racism The institutionalized domination of one racial group by another.
Random sample A sample of units drawn from a larger population in such a way that every unit has a known and equal chance of being selected.
Range The total spread of values in a set of figures .
Rank Place in a social hierarchy.
Rank differentiation See Differentiation, rank.

Rape A completed sexual assault by a male, usually upon a female, although sometimes upon another male.
Rate of natural increase The difference between birth and death rates, excluding immigration.
Rationalization The process of subjecting social relationships to calculation and administration.
Real values The values people consider truly important, as evident in their behavior and how they spend their time and money.
Rebellion In anomie theory, a form of deviance that occurs when individuals reject culturally valued means and goals and substitute new means and goals. In political sociology, the expression of opposition to an established authority.
Reference group A social group whose standards and opinions are used by an individual to help define or evaluate beliefs, values, and behaviors.
Reform movement A type of social movement that accepts the status quo but seeks certain specific social reforms.
Regressive movement A type of social movement whose aim is to move the social world back to where members believe it was at an earlier time.
Relative poverty The condition of having much less income than the average person in society, even if one can afford the necessities of life.
Religion A set of shared beliefs and rituals common to a special community and focusing on the sacred and supernatural.
Religious movement An organized religious group with the primary goal of changing existing religious institutions.
Research and development (R&D) Investments in basic research and in the practical application of basic research discoveries.
Research design The specific plan for conducting a research study, including sampling, measurement, and data analysis.
Resocialization The process of socializing people away from a group or activity in which they are involved.
Resource mobilization theory The theory that social movements are affected by their ability to marshal various key resources.
Retreatism In anomie theory, a form of deviance that occurs when individuals abandon culturally valued means and goals.
Revolution A large-scale change in the political leadership of a society and the restructuring of major features of that society.
Revolutionary movement A type of social movement whose aim is to reorganize existing society completely.
Riot A destructive and sometimes violent collective outburst.
Rising expectations A situation in which people feel that past hardships should not have to be suffered in the future.
Ritual In the sociology of religion, the rules of conduct concerning behavior in the presence of the sacred. Intended to produce feelings of reverence, awe, and group identity.
Ritualism In anomie theory, a form of deviance in which individuals lose sight of socially valued goals but conform closely to socially prescribed means.
Rival hypothesis An explanation that competes with the original hypothesis in a study.
Role To functionalists, the culturally prescribed and socially patterned behaviors associated with particular social positions. For interactionists, the effort to mesh the demands of a social position with one's own identity.
Role accumulation Adding more statuses and roles to the ones an individual already has.
Role conflict A situation in which two or more social roles make incompatible demands on a person.
Role exit The process of leaving a role that is central to one's identity and building an identity in a new role while also taking into account one's prior role.
Role expectations Commonly shared norms about how a person is supposed to behave in a particular role.
Role performance The behaviors of a person performing a certain social role.
Role set The cluster of roles that accompanies a particular status.
Rowdyism Generalized interpersonal violence or property destruction occurring at spectator events.
Ruling class A small class that controls the means of economic production and dominates political decisions.
Rumor A report that is passed informally from one person to another without firm evidence.

Sample survey A systematic method of collecting information from respondents, using personal interviews or written questionnaires.
Sanction A social reward or punishment for approved or disapproved behavior; can be positive or negative, formal or informal.
Scapegoating Blaming a convenient but innocent person or group for one's trouble or guilt.
Schooling Formal education.
Science An approach used to obtain reliable knowledge about the physical and social worlds, based on systematic empirical observations; the knowledge so obtained.
Scientific productivity Making new discoveries, confirming or disconfirming theoretical hypotheses through experimentation and other types of research, and publishing the results of that research.
Scientific revolution The dramatic overthrow of one intellectual paradigm by another.
Secondary deviance Behavior discovered by others and publicly labeled by them as deviant.
Secondary economic sector The sector of an economy in which raw materials are turned into manufactured goods.
Secondary group A social group bound together for the accomplishment of common tasks, with few emotional ties among members.
Sect An exclusive, highly cohesive group of ascetic religious believers. Sects usually last longer and are more institutionalized than cults.
Sector theory A theory of urban development explaining that cities develop in wedge-shaped patterns following transportation systems.
Secularization The erosion of belief in the supernatural. Includes a growing respect for rationality, cultural and religious pluralism, tolerance of moral ambiguity, faith in education, and belief in civil rights, the rule of law, and due process.
Self-fulfilling prophecy A belief or prediction about a person or situation that influences that person or situation in such a way that the belief or prediction comes true.
Sex The biological distinction of being male or female.
Sibling A brother or sister.
Social categories Groups of people who may not interact but who share certain social characteristics or statuses.
Social change A modification or transformation in the way society is organized.
Social class A group's position in a social hierarchy based on prestige and/or property ownership.
Social construction of reality The process of socially creating definitions of situations so that they appear to be natural.
Social control The relatively patterned and systematic ways in which society guides and restrains individual behaviors so that people act in predictable and desirable ways.
Social forces The social structures and culture individuals face in a society.
Social inequality The existence of unequal opportunities or rewards for people in different social positions.
Social interaction The ways people behave in relation to one another by means of language, gestures, and symbols.
Socialist societies Societies in which productive resources are owned and controlled by the state rather than by individuals.
Socialization The process of preparing newcomers to become members of an existing social group by helping them to learn the attitudes and behaviors that are considered appropriate.
Social learning theory A form of learning theory suggesting that people learn through observation and imitation, even though they are not rewarded or punished for certain behaviors.
Social mobility The movement from one status to another within a stratified society.
Social movement A group of people who work together to guide or suppress particular changes in the way society is organized.
Social network A set of interdependent relations or links between individuals.
Social psychology The scientific study of how individual behavior is socially influenced.
Social relations of production The organization of economic life on the basis of owning or not owning the means of production, purchasing or selling labor power, and controlling or not controlling other people's labor power.
Social sciences Disciplines related to sociology that study human activity and communication, including psychology, anthropology, economics, political science.
Social stratification The fairly permanent ranking of positions in a society in terms of unequal power, prestige, or privilege.
Social structure Recurrent and patterned relationships among individuals, organizations, nations, or other social units.
Society A group of people with a shared and somewhat distinct culture who live in a defined territory, feel some unity as a group, and see themselves as distinct from other peoples.
Sociobiology The scientific study of the biological basis for human behavior.
Socioeconomic status (SES) An index of social status that considers a person's occupation, education, and income as measures of social status.
Sociology The study and analysis of patterned social relationships in modern societies.
Sovereignty The authority claimed by a state to maintain a legal system, use coercive power to secure obedience, and maintain its independence from other states.
Sponsored mobility A pattern in which certain children are selected at an early age for academic and university education and are thus helped to achieve higher social status.
Sport A form of game in which the outcome is affected by physical skill.
Staff job In an organization, an advisory or administrative job that supports the manufacturing, production, selling, or other primary activities of the organization.
Stage theory A theory suggesting that nations go through various systematic stages of development.
State The institutionalized, legal organization of power within territorial limits.
State sector The sector of the economy controlled by local, state, or federal governments that supplies goods and services under direct contract to that state.
State terrorism The use of torture, death squads, and disappearances by political states to intimidate citizens.
Status A socially defined position in society that carries with it certain prescribed rights, obligations, and expected behaviors.
Status-attainment model A view of social mobility suggesting the importance of father's education, father's occupation, son's education, and son's first job for a man's adult status. (Early research was based only on men.)
Status group People who share a social identity based on similar values and life-styles.
Status inconsistency May occur when an individual occupies two or more unequal statuses in a society.
Stigmatization The process of spoiling a person's identity by labeling him or her in a negative way.
Structural change Demographic, economic, and rank-order changes in a society.
Structural-functional perspective One of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology, developed by Talcott Parsons: focuses on how the various parts of society fit together or adjust to maintain the equilibrium of the whole.
Subculture A distinguishable group that shares a number of features with the dominant culture within which it exists while also having unique features such as language, customs, or values.
Subjective meanings The values and interpretations individuals place on their life situations and experiences; may vary from person to person.
Subjective social class A person's own perception of his or her class position.
Suburb A fairly small community within an urban area that includes a central city.
Sunbelt The area south of the 37th parallel in the United States, including Clark County in Nevada.
Superego In Freudian theory, the part of the personality structure that upholds the norms of society.
Symbol Any object or sign that evokes a shared social response.
Symbolic interaction Interaction that relies on shared symbols such as language.
Symbolic interactionism An interpretive perspective, inspired by the work of George Herbert Mead, saying that individuals learn meanings through interaction with others and then organize their lives around these socially created meanings.

Taboo A strongly prohibited social practice; the strongest form of social norm.
Technological determinism The belief that technological development shapes social life in rather fixed ways.
Technology The practical applications of scientific knowledge.
Tension release theory A theory suggesting that sport serves as a form of social safety valve, allowing individuals to vent their seething aggressions.
Terrorism An attack on people designed to frighten society and force it to meet the terrorists' demands.
Tertiary economic sector The sector of an economy that offers services to individuals as well as to business.
Theoretical approach A set of guiding ideas.
Theory A system of orienting ideas, concepts, and relationships that provides a way of organizing the observable world.
Theory X A view of organizational behavior suggesting that people hate their jobs, want to avoid responsibility, resist change, and do not care about organizational needs.
Theory Y A view of organizational behavior suggesting that people have the desire to work, to be creative, and to take responsibility for their jobs and for the organization.
Theory Z A form of organizational culture that values long-term employment, trust, and close personal relationships between workers and managers.
Total fertility rate An estimate of the average number of children that would be born to each woman over her reproductive life if current age-specific birth rates remained constant.
Total institution A place where people spend 24 hours of every day for an extended part of their lives, cut off from the rest of society and tightly controlled by the people in charge.
Totalitarianism A form of autocracy that involves the use of state power to control and regulate all phases of life.
Tournament selection An educational pattern in which a continual process of selection serves to weed out candidates; winners move on to the next round of selection and losers are eliminated from the competition.
Tracking The practice of grouping students by ability, curriculum, or both.
Triad A group composed of three people.


Underemployment The hiring of people in jobs that are not customarily filled by individuals with their relatively high levels of experience or education.
Underground economy Exchanges of goods and services that occur outside the arena of the normal, regulated economy and therefore escape official record keeping.
Unit of analysis Who or what is being studied in a piece of social research.
Urbanization The growth of cities.

Value-added theory A theory suggesting that many instances of collective behavior represent efforts to change the social environment.
Values Strongly held general ideas that people share about what is good and bad, desirable or undesirable; values provide yardsticks for judging specific acts and goals.
Variable A logical set of attributes with different degrees of magnitude or different categories. For example, age is a variable on which people can be classified according to the number of years they have lived.
Verstehen The effort to understand social behavior in terms of the motives individuals bring to it.
Vertical integration A form of business organization that attempts to control the business environment by assuming control of one or more of its resources or business outlets.
Vertical mobility Movement of an individual or a group upward or downward, from one social status to another.

Wealth The total value (minus debts) of what is owned.
Weberian approach The views held by conflict theorists who, using the ideas of Max Weber, stress the significance of conflict in social life, especially conflict among status groups such as those based on occupation, ethnic background, or religion.
White-collar crime Crimes committed by "respectable" individuals, often while they practice their occupations-- for example, embezzling money or stealing computer time.
White ethnics White Americans who value and preserve aspects of their ethnic heritage.
World systems analysis A form of sociological analysis that stresses understanding national behavior in terms of historical and contemporary relationships among nations and societies .

Zero population growth (ZPG) The situation that occurs when the population of a nation or the world remains stable from one year to the next.




Political Science
A.

Actual Malice.-------- Knowledge of a defamatory statement's falsity or a reckless disregard for the truth.
Acquisitive Model. ---------A model of bureaucracy that assumes top-level bureaucrats attempt to expand the size of their budgets and staffs to increase their power.
Administrative Agency. ---------A federal, state, or local government unit established to perform a specific function. Such an agency is created and authorized by a legislative body to administer and enforce specific law(s).
Advice and Consent. ----------A term in the U.S. Constitution that describes the U.S. Senate's power to review and approve treaties and presidential appointments.
Affirm.----- Declare that a court ruling is valid; make a formal judicial declaration, but not under oath.
Affirmative Action. -----A policy in job hiring or educational admissions that gives special compensatory treatment or other attention to traditionally disadvantaged groups (in an effort to reduce the present effects of past discrimination).
Agenda Setting.----- Determining which [public-policy] questions will be debated or considered.
Agenda Setting Effect.----- Limitations of focus caused by agenda setting.
Amicus Curiae Brief.---------- A brief filed by a third party, or amicus curiae (Latin for 'friend of the court'), who is not involved directly in the litigation but has an interest in the case's outcome.
Anti-Federalist. --------Historically, a person in opposition to the ratification of the new Constitution in 1787. Anti-Federalists opposed a strong central government. Contrast with federalist.
Appellate Court.---- A court having jurisdiction to review cases and issues that were originally tried in lower courts.
Appointment Power. ---------The authority vested in the president to fill a government office or position. Such positions include those in the executive branch and the federal judiciary, commissioned officers in the armed forces, and members of independent regulatory commissions.
Appropriation. ---------Passage by Congress of a spending bill specifying the amount of authorized funds that will be allocated for an agency's use.
Aristocracy. -------[From Greek aristos = best and krateein = to rule.] Rule by an upper class, which claims that it is 'best'. Compare with theocracy.
Arraignment.------------ The first act in a criminal proceeding: the defendant is brought before a court to hear the charges against him or her and to enter a plea of guilty or not guilty.
Australian Ballot. -----------A secret ballot prepared, distributed, and tabulated by government officials at public expense. Since 1888, all states have used the Australian ballot (rather than an open and public ballot).
Authoritarian. ------------A regime of command and control by the ruler of the government. The government is fully controlled by the ruler.     In contrast with a     totalitarian state,     some social and economic institutions exist outside of government control.
Robert Altemeyer's early work on the "authoritarian personality" identified three particularly important aspects of the authoritarian personality:
conventionalism
authoritarian aggression
authoritarian submission
John Dean relates this area's research to politics in his Conservatives without conscience, where he presents two types of authoritarians in current and recent USA politics:
The 'classical' authoritarian, which is the right-wing authoritarian (RWA), who is a follower, submits to psychological authority, and has self-righteous 'moral' standards and (often) a short-circuited conscience.
The authoritarian leader with social-dominance orientation (SDO).
Authority [AGBV, 2005]. The right to decide, command, and act, given to the government by the people who believe it has the right to rule.
Authorization. ------------A formal declaration by a legislative committee that a certain amount of funding may be available to an agency. Some authorizations terminate after a year. Some are renewable automatically without further congressional action.



B.

Bicameral Legislature. ----------A legislature that comprises two parts or chambers. The USA Congress is a bicameral legislature;     its two chambers are the House of Representatives and the Senate.     Compare with     unicameral legislature.
Big Lie. ------------A tactic to smear the reputation of an opponent by outrageous allegations about his or her behavior or affiliations. E.g., used in the early 1950s by Senator Joseph McCarthy in his witch-hunt for communists in the federal government.
Bill Of Rights. --------First ten amendments of the US Constitution: Lists individual rights and liberties;     specifies the three branches (legislative, executive, judicial),     each with power to block some action by the other two.
Block Grants. ----------Federal funds granted to state and local governments for criminal justice programs, mental-health programs, and other general areas of service.     Compare with     Categorical Grants.
Brief. ----------A document containing a legal argument supporting a desired outcome in a particular case.
Busing. ---------In civil rights, the transportation of public-school students from the areas where they live to schools in other areas, in order to reduce school segregation based on residential patterns.

C.

Capitalism.-------- An economic system in which the means of production and distribution are mainly in private ownership for private gain at the expense of the non-owners.     Mechanisms include free markets and freedom of contract.
Categorical Grants.---------- Federal funds granted to state and local governments for specific programs or projects.     Compare with     Block Grants.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). ------Intelligence organization that deals with foreign threats and enemies.
Checks and Balances. --------A principle of a system of government whereby each branch of the government can check the actions of the others. As originally conceived, this was true of the government of the USA.
Civil Disobedience. ---------A nonviolent, public refusal to obey allegedly unjust laws.
Civil Law. ---------The law regulating conduct between private persons over noncriminal matters. The government provides the forum for the settlement of disputes between private parties in contracts, domestic relations, business interactions, and similar matters.
Civil Liberties. ---------Those personal freedoms that are protected for all individuals against the government.
Civil Rights.------- In the USA, the rights rooted in the     Constitution's Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection under the law.
Clear and Present Danger Test. ----------The test (proposed by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes) for determining when government may restrict     free speech. Restrictions are not permissible unless speech presents a 'clear and present danger' to public order.
Commerce Clause.----------- A section of the Constitution that assigns to Congress the power to regulate trade among the states and with foreign countries.
Commercial Speech. ------------Advertising statements, which increasingly have been given First Amendment protection.
Common Law. --------Judge-made law (originating in England) from decisions shaped according to prevailing customs. Decisions were applied to similar situations and then gradually became common to the nation.
Communism.---------- A social system in which goods and services are shared communally     (as in early Christian communities). A variant of     socialism that favors centralized public ownership of the means of production     and the sharing of the products of labor:
    Concurrent Powers. -----------Powers held jointly by the national and state governments.
Confederal System.-------- A league of independent states, each having essentially sovereign powers. The central government created by such a league has only limited powers over the states.
Confederation. ---------A voluntary association of states; usually limits central authority to foreign affairs and is less permanent than a federation. A political system where states or regional governments retain ultimate authority, except for powers expressly delegated to a central government.
Connecticut (or 'Great') Compromise. ----------Ensured the support by the smaller states (as well as the larger) for a strong central government.
Constitution. -----------The fundamental law of a nation. Defines the power of the government; specifies offices and their authority.
Consent of the People. ----------Governments and laws are legitimate implicitly from the consent of those governed.
Conservatism.--------A selfish right-wing approach that minimizes national government help of individuals and promotes traditional values and lifestyles.     Thus Conservatism opposes change unless it reduces government support of individuals     or regresses to even more traditional values and lifestyles than are in place.
Cooperative Federalism. ---------The theory that the states and the national government should cooperate in solving problems.
Court. ---------A place where justice is administered.
Criminal Law .--------- Law that defines crimes and provides punishment for violations. In criminal cases, the government is the prosecutor because crimes are against the public order.

D.

Deficit. --------The amount by which a required sum of money is short. A national deficit is established by borrowing against the issue of government securities, to allow governmental expenditures to exceed receipts. See also: recession, (budget) surplus, fiscal policy.
Democracy.-------- [From Greek demos = people and krateein = to rule.] Rule by the people.
Democratic Republic. ---------A     republic     in which the representatives elected by the people make and enforce laws and policies.
Devolution. --------Transfer of powers from the national or central government to state or local government. This happened in the United Kingdom in the late twentieth century.
Détente ----------[French]. Reduction of discord between nations. Example: U.S.A.-Soviet relations that developed under     U.S.A. President Richard Nixon and his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger.
Diplomacy. ---------The art and science of conducting negotiations between nations.
Direct Democracy-------- [AGBV, 2005]. A system of government where political decisions are made by the people directly, rather than by their elected representatives.
Dominant Culture. ----------Values, customs, and language of the group(s) that control politics and government in a society.
E.

Elite Theory. ----------The speculation that society is ruled by a small number of people who exercise power to further their self-interest.
Equality. ----------The political idea that all people are of equal worth.
Exports.---------- Goods and services produced domestically and sold or traded abroad. Contrast with     imports.
F.

Fascism.---------- A     totalitarian system of government developed in Italy in 1919     by the Fascisti led by Benito Mussolini, in opposition to     Socialism and      Communism.     Fascism:
Exalts an absolute ruler (dictator).
Rejects liberal individualism.
Glorifies war, merging the interests of state, armed forces, and big business.
Applied to
Benito Mussolini in Italy, particualarly from 1922 to 1943
(Often) Nazi Germany.
Francisco Franco, who led Spanish rebels with the aided of fascist Italy and Nazi Germany; overcame the liberal Spanish Republic in the 1936 Spanish Civil War. [To isolate itself from the Spanish Civil War, the U.S.A. broadened its neutrality to civil wars.]
Federal System. ---------A system of government where power is divided between a central government and regional, or subdivisional, governments. Each of those levels has a domain where its policies are dominant. And each has political or constitutional guarantee of authority.
Federalism.---------- A political system in which authority is shared between a central government and a state or regional government.
Federation. ----------An association of states; usually more permanent than a confederation. A political system where states or regional governments retain ultimate authority, except for powers expressly delegated to a central government.
free speech.

G.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP).------- [Dollar] value of all final goods and services produced during a one-year period.
Government------- [AGBV, 2005]. The establish form of rule and ultimate authority within a society or a nation. The institution that has authority and that makes decisions to resolve conflicts or allocate benefits and privileges.
H.

Horizontal integration. -------Merger of competitors in the same industry. Contrast with vertical integration.
I.

Ideology. ---------A world view or set of comprehensive beliefs about people and the role of government.
Imports. -------Goods and services brought into a country from abroad for commercial purposes. Contrast with     exports.
Initiative -------[AGBV, 2005]. Citizen petition of a measure     put on the     ballot.
Isolationism. --------A policy that advocates national self-sufficiency and freedom from international affairs or alliances (political and economic).
K.

Keynesian Economics.-------- School of economic thought that favors active federal government policy-making     through discretionary fiscal policy to stabilize economy-wide fluctuations.
L.

Legislature.----------- That part of government primarily responsible for making laws.
Legitimacy.----------- Acceptance by the citizens of the right and power of a government or ruler to exercise authority.
Liberal Democracy [AGBV, 2005]. --------Democratic government that provides for the protection of individual human rights, in order to prevent a majority from oppressing a minority.
Liberalism. ----------Advocacy of positive government action to improve the welfare of individuals, support for civil rights, and tolerance for political and social change.
Libertarianism. -------A political ideology of skepticism or opposition toward most government activities.
Liberty. ----------The fullest freedom of individuals consistent with the freedom of others in the society.
Limited Government.------- A government whose powers are limited, particularly by institutional checks.
M.

Majoritarianism. -------The government ought to do what the majority of the citizens want.
Majority. Over 50 percent.
Majority Rule. ------In any political unit, support by the greatest number of citizens selects officials and determines policies.
Monetary Policy. -----Manipulation of changes in the amount of money in circulation to adjust credit markets, employment, and the rate of inflation.
Moral Idealism.----- Assumption that nations as willing to cooperate and agree on moral standards of conduct.
N.
-
Natural Rights. -------Rights held to be inherent in natural law, rather than dependent on governments. As such, there is the danger of claims being made akin to religious beliefs.
John Locke claimed that natural law is superior to human law, and that it includes rights of 'life, liberty, and property'. These rights (modified to 'life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness') are asserted in the Declaration of Independence.
Nuclear Proliferation.------ Development of nuclear weapons by nations that did not have them before.
O.

Order. -----A state of peace and security, maintained by protecting citizens from violence and criminal activity.
P.

Parliamentary System [AGBV, 2005]. -------Representative democracy where political power is vested in an elected legislature. Used in most European countries.
Partizanship [AGBV, 2005]. -----Expression of party-based ideologies and policy priorities, which may lead to conflict in the political system.
Pluralism. ------------A social condition where different racial, ethnic, and religious groups are intermingled geographically.     Also a theory of politics as a conflict among interest groups,     where political decision making requires bargaining and compromise.
PoliticalCulture. ---------Beliefs and attitudes of a community or nation toward government and the political process.
Political Socialization. --------The process by which citizens learn political attitudes and form opinions about social issues. Important forces in this process are the family and the educational system.
Politics [AGBV, 2005]. ------The art and science of government and conducting the affairs of a state. Also the struggle for power within organizations and informal groups     that can grant and withhold benefits or privileges.      The management of conflict over who will run the government and to what ends.
    Compare with Diplomacy.
Political Realism. --------Each nation acts principally in its own interests.
Power [AGBV, 2005]. ------The ability to force someone to change one's behavior, no matter what their wishes.
Popular Sovereignty.-----------Ultimate political authority is based on the will of the people.
Presidential System [AGBV, 2005]. ---------Representative democracy where political power is vested in separately elected and appointed branches of national government.     This system is used in the USA.
Primary [election] [AGBV, 2005]. Election to determine which will be a party's candidate for office. [In Europe, this selection is done by the party leader.]
Progressive Tax. ----------A tax that is an increasing percentage as income rises.
Compare with: proportional tax and regressive tax.
Property. ------Any thing that can be owned. Political philosopher John Locke considered that the right to property is a natural right     (superior to human law made by government).
Proportional Tax. --------A tax that is a constant percentage as income rises.
Compare with: progressive tax. regressive tax.
Ratification. ---------Formal approval.
Recall [AGBV, 2005].-------- An election procedure that allows the people to vote to dismiss an elected official from state office before his or her term has expired.
Referendum. --------Legislative or constitutional measures referred by the legislature to the voters for approval or disapproval.
Regressive Tax.------------A tax that is a decreasing percentage as income rises.
Compare with:progressive tax.------------proportional tax.
Representative Assembly.------ A legislature composed of individuals representing the population.
Representative Democracy [AGBV, 2005].------ A form of government in which representatives are elected by the people to make and enforce laws and policies. Political decisions are made by the officials elected by the people. [Some such democracies retain a monarchy in a ceremonial role.]
Republic [AGBV, 2005]. --------A form of government in which sovereignty rests with the people (or a portion of the people), as opposed to a king or monarch or dictator.     This form of Representative Democracy     was created by the framers of the US constituion.
S.

Separation of Powers.----- The division of governmental functions and powers among different branches of government, so that the various self-interests of each group would moderate those of the others.
Shays Rebellion. 1787: ---------Soldiers of the Revolutionary War were led by Daniel Shays to prevent foreclosure of farms as a result of high interest rates and taxes.     This rebellion highlighted the weakness of individual states in such situations     and the need for a federation.
Social Contract.------ A voluntary agreement among individuals to establish and secure their rights and welfare by creating a government and abiding by its rules.
Social Security Tax.---------- An example of a regressive tax.
Socialism. ---------Public collective ownership and control of the means of production, distribution, and exchange.
Also viewed as a political ideology based on strong support for economic and social equality, in a society where major businesses are taken over by the government or by employee cooperatives.
Also see     Communism.
State.-----------A group of people occupying a particular region and organized under a single government; a nation or a subunit of a nation.
Subsidy.---------- Aid, usually money or of monetary value, given by the government to support a public service.
In-kind subsidy: --------Goods or services (food stamps, housing, medical care, etc.) provided by a government to low-income groups.
Suffrage. -------[From Latin suffragium = voting tablet, vote.] The right and privilege of voting; the franchise.
Also see     universal suffrage.
Supremacy Clause. ------------The provision in the Constitution that makes the Constitution and the federal laws superior to any conflicting state and local laws.
Supremacy Doctrine. ----------Doctrine that asserts the priority of national law over state laws. In the USA, this principle is in Article VI of the Constitution, which provides that the supreme law of the land comprises:
the Constitution,
the laws passed by the national government under its constitutional powers,
and all treaties.
T.

Tariff.------ Tax on imports.
Tax. ---------See progressive tax, proportional tax, and regressive tax.
Also: Estate Tax, Federal Corporate Income Tax, Federal Income Tax, and social security tax.
theocracy. ------[From Greek theos = god and krateein = to rule.] Rule by a god, which in practice means rule by a priesthood. No separation of church and state. Compare with aristocracy. Totalitarian. A regime of command by the government and obedience by the citizens. The regime controls all aspects of political and social life     (as in George Orwell's 1984).     In contrast with an     authoritarian state,     all social and economic institutions are under government control.
U.

Unicameral Legislature. --------A legislature that comprises a single part or chamber. In the USA (early 21st century)     only the state of Nebraska has a unicameral legislature.     Compare with     bicameral legislature.
Unitary System. ----------A centralized governmental system where local or regional governments exercise only the powers that the central government gives them.
universal suffrage.-------- [From Latin suffragium = voting tablet, vote.] The right and privilege of all adults to vote for their representatives.
Also see     suffrage.



 ad hominem
Latin for “to the man”. Attacking the presenter of an argument rather than the argument itself. A.k.a.  “playing the man, not the ball”.
agitprop
Less-than-subtle political propaganda disseminated through the media and performing arts. Term derived from the then department of Agitation and Propaganda of the Soviet Union.
absent vote
A vote cast by voters who are out of their division but still within their State or Territory which may be cast at any polling place in that State or Territory.
absolute majority
(50%+1 vote). A term used to compare the least votes a winning candidate may need in a preferential single member voting system compared with that of first- past-the-post systems of other countries where a “majority” may well be less than 50%.  Also a concept used in some parliamentary votes where a simple majority of all members present is not enough.
accord
A diplomatic agreement that does not have the same binding force as a treaty.
adjournment
Temporary interruption during a parliamentary session.
administrative law
That segment of public law that is used to challenge the decisions of government officials and / or delegated legislation. Excluding policy decisions made by people’s elected representatives, where it is deemed electoral popular support authorises the office holder to be unrestrained in their decision making as long as it is within the law, all civil / public servants, from the Prime Minister down can be challenged in court (as long as the plaintiff has standing) on the “reasonableness” of their administrative actions or even on their failure to act. Over time the authority of A.L. has been extended to so called public bodies: NGOs, Quangos and other organisations which otherwise would have discretionary power over the rights of their members.
adversarial system
The system of law, as exists in the Anglo-American world, where an issue is argued in court by two opposing sides, the prosecutor or plaintiff, and the defence. Opposite to the Inquisitorial system where a judge or panel of judges call evidence and interrogate witnesses, as exists in many European countries.
affirmative action
Legislative programs which aim to create minority equality in employment, university placements, housing  and other government beneficial situations even though, most of the time, outright discrimination against so called majorities is not ostensibly advocated.
agrarian socialist
Originally applying to non urban, pre-industrial revolution peoples with traditional, conservative attitudes, those who believe in the collective ownership and control of primary industries, and to a lesser extent secondary industries, for the benefit of all, but otherwise not that committed to other socialist beliefs such as progressive/liberal approaches to domestic or international social concerns.
Saul Alinsky
Described by opponents as an organisational genius, an American political activist, although never aligned with any political party, who, through his book Rules for Radicals, propagated ideas for poor communities to successfully politically organise. Prominent in the 60’s with college students and other counter-culture movements. Book is now popular with both sides of the political divide.
altruism
The devotion to the interests of others above that of the self. The opposite of egoism.
anarchy
A condition of lawlessness and disorder brought about by the absence of any controlling authority.
ancien régime
The government and social system that was swept away by the French Revolution. An administration and associated government programs that have been superseded.
androcracy
A state or society ruled by men where moral authority and control of property may also be exclusively in the hands of males. a.k.a.  andrarchy or phallocracy.
anti-clericalism
Opposition to the influence of religion in government and legislative affairs.
apparatchik
A member of communist party machine; derogatory term for a political party zealot.
approval voting
‘First Past the Post’ voting but with the added concept that one can tick (approve of) as many candidates’ names as one wishes. A simpler form of preferential voting eliminating the chances of minority candidates winning when too many mainstream candidates run against each other.
autocracy
A form of government where unlimited power is held by one single individual.
autonomy
A limited form of independence where, for example, a state or colony can control its own domestic affairs but has no say over its foreign affairs.
backbencher
A member of Parliament (government or opposition) who is not in a leadership role in their party but merely sits literally on the back bench.
balance of power
The leverage a small party in the legislature possesses, in being able to give, or hold back, voting support to a large, albeit still minority party, to allow it to have a majority on a vote.
ballot
A method of secret voting, normally in a written form.
ballot paper
A paper handed to each voter on election day to be marked, showing the names of the candidates (and sometimes the parties) who are standing for election.
bellwether
A small entity whose characteristics happen to reflect that of the whole state or nation. The American state of Nevada is a bellwether state for presidential elections in that, with only one exception, it has voted the same as the whole country for a century. The Australian electorate of Eden-Monaro has voted in a government MP at every election since 1972. A bellwether is a ram with a bell attached to indicate to the farmer where the flock is when not in sight.
the Beltway
A term to describe the politically and socially insular community of Washington DC. Derived from Interstate Highway 495 which circumnavigates Washington forming a “belt”. One would be, metaphorical speaking, inside or outside the Beltway. The term is sometimes used in other countries although in Britain the equivalent concept is “the Westminster Bubble”.
bigot
A person who refuses to discuss, consider or listen to, beliefs or theories contrary to his own. Derived from the Middle Ages French term of abuse for religious Normans who would frequently use the term “By God”.
bill
The name for proposed legislation entered into the house / houses of parliament to be debated upon for approval. If approved at all stages it then becomes an act and thus law.
bill of attainder
No longer practiced ancient writ or act of Parliament to declare someone guilty of a crime and/or subject to punishment without benefit of trial. Attainder, meaning taintedness, also meant that any party guilty of a capital crime lost all civil rights including property, and if not life, then right to reputation. Still exercised in the 20th century in Australian states where a convicted capital felon, Darcy Dugan, was denied the right to sue for defamation and a dangerous inmate, Gregory Kable, was not released after his full prison term was served due to an act of parliament.
bill of rights
aka Charter of Rights or Declaration of Rights. A list of entrenched fundamental human rights as perceived by the declarer. Whereas a nation’s enacted laws are deemed to protect people from the malevolent deeds of their fellow citizens, a B.o.R is deemed to protect the citizenry from the excesses of their rulers. Term derived from the 1689 Bill of Rights enacted by the British Parliament after the Glorious Revolution.
bipartisan
Adjective to describe a situation where the normally opposing political parties come together to agree on an initiative. Technically two parties coming together.
block voting
In multi-member electorates, each voter having the same number of votes as the number of vacant seats (must tick off [say] three names). This has the effect of minimising the chances of minority candidates winning seats.
boondoggle
A wasteful government financed infrastructure developed at a cost much greater than its value, undertaken for local or political gain.
bourgeois
Marxist term now used to describe middle class professionals living a relatively luxurious life style.
by-law
Not a law but a government rule or regulation. see ‘delegated legislation’.
by-election
A local election held to fill a suddenly vacated (single member voting) seat due to death, resignation etc.     see also Casual Vacancy
bicameral / unicameral
Government with either two or one house of legislature. France, Sweden, South Korea and New Zealand all have unicameral governments.
cabinet
The ‘board of directors’ of executive government.  Made up of the President / Prime Minister as chairman and each director as a secretary or minister responsible for the relevant government departments such as defence, environment, trade etc.
capitalism
An economic system based on the recognition of private property rights, where prices are dictated by supply and demand, and where the means of production and distribution of goods and services derive from privately owned resources, or capital, operating within an unregulated market.
candidate
A person who stands for election to Parliament. In Australia candidates can be nominated by political parties or stand as independents.
caretaker government
A type of governance where those in power refrain from significant actions such as undertaking major legislative programs or senior judicial or public service appointments, but only maintain necessary normal administrative duties. The reason for this is that power would be in transition due to an election being due or being called suddenly due to the success of a vote of no confidence, or some other situation where legitimate democratic government has to be restored.
carpetbagger
A pejorative term to describe outsiders taking advantage of a situation where others would normally be expected to benefit. A carpet bag was a fashionable form of luggage of the time used by northern “Yankees”, political appointees or businessmen, who moved down to southern states during the American post-Civil War Reconstruction era taking advantage of the instability, power vacuum and fire sale prices of the property market.
casual vacancy [Aust.]
A suddenly vacated Senate seat filled not by an election but by State government appointment.
casus belli
The alleged justification for acts of war.
caucus
A closed meeting of members of a political party or faction. Also the term for a group of people within an establishment with a common political leaning. In Australia the term is used to describe the parliamentary members of the ALP.
cause célèbre
Fr. for ‘famous case’. A controversy (often a court case) arousing high public interest because of policy issues at stake. Examples would be the Dreyfus affair, the Scopes Monkey Trial and the American Roe v Wade Supreme Court case.
Chartists
Popular British 19th century working class movement advocating electoral reform. Named after their Peoples’ Charter of six demands: universal male suffrage, equal electoral districts, secret ballot, no qualifications to enter parliament, pay for MPs and annual elections. Despite at one stage having three million signatures on a petition to Parliament, the movement eventually disbanded without witnessing any reforms.
Chatham House Rules
Rules / undertakings sometimes declared at public meetings where the identity or affiliation of a speaker cannot later be made public when and if mentioning what was said. The alternative to “on the record” discussions.
clear and present danger
A concept in American constitutional law to describe a situation where fundamental constitutional principles can be overlooked in exigent circumstances.
client state
A country that is economically or militarily dependent upon another, but not actually controlled politically by the patron state as in the case of a ‘puppet state’.
closed shop
A place of work where the union has arranged that the employer will only employ those who are its members.
citizens initiated referendum
A democratic vehicle for legislative or constitutional enactment which bypasses Parliament. As exists in Switzerland and some states of the USA, if a petition for a certain proposition can raise a certain number of signatures then the legislature is compelled to put it to the people at a referendum and then to enact it in law if passed.
civis Romanus sum
(I am a Roman Citizen). The claim by ancient Romans that wherever so they travel in foreign lands they should be afforded full rights and protection, with the understanding that Roman military might would respond to any violations.  Justification used by UK Prime Minister Lord Palmerston in 1850 when blockading Athens to ensure a British citizen there was compensated for the property damage inflicted by a violent Greek mob.
coattails effect
A popular candidate at an election having the ability to draw votes, not just for himself, but also for his fellow party candidates.
command economy
As compared to the free market, an economy which is mostly under the command of the government.
common law
The law of the land which comes from neither the statute books nor the constitution but from court law reports. Originally that body of law which was common to all parts of England (not customary or local law) and developed over centuries from the English courts to be adopted and further developed in countries using that system. As compared to democratically maintained law, common law is judge maintained and modified law and is valid unless it conflicts with statute law.
communitarianism
The concept of collective, rather than individual, ownership of all the nation’s assets, as well as the duty by those able, to create and / or manage those assets.
comparative advantage
The ability of a party to produce a particular good or service at a lower marginal or opportunity cost than another. If country A can produce both apples and oranges cheaper than country B, with apples significantly cheaper, it is more efficient for it to concentrate on growing and exporting only apples while importing oranges, even though the oranges imported would not be as cheap as those if home grown.
confederalism
A form of federalism where the individual regions that make up the sovereign state exercise a larger degree of autonomy. Often the right to secede and the sole right to raise taxes, the funding of the central government coming from the regions. The pre-Civil War slave states of America united to form the Confederated States of America to maintain states’ rights.
conservative
Often taken as synonymous with right wing with a penchant for censorship and state control to protect against ‘immoral’ personal behaviour, but technically an attitude of belief in the established order and suspicious of change.
constituent
A citizen residing in a particular MP’s area or district.
constitution
The set of basic rules by which a country or state is governed. Sometimes includes a Bill of Rights.    The ultimate set of laws to which all other laws made by contemporary governments are subservient to. The strength and integrity of a constitution is often reflected by the difficulty it is to be changed.
constitutional referendum
A proposal to alter the Constitution being put to the public vote. In Australia at a referendum the proposed alteration must be approved by a 'double majority': a national majority of voters in the States and Territories; and a majority of voters in a majority of the States.
consumer price index
A measurement of inflation by comparing, at regular intervals, the price (taking weighting into account) of a set of basic consumer goods and services purchased by households.
consumption tax
A tax levied on goods and services such as sales tax, GST, VAT or an excise tax. A tax on the spending of income rather than the earning of it, so as to include people who might otherwise evade income tax such as those in the black economy or successful with tax avoidance schemes.
coup d’ėtat
Sudden and often violent overthrow of a government.
crossing the floor
An MP crossing the floor of Parliament to vote with his/her opposition. An act rarely forgiven in Commonwealth countries but common in the USA.
cumulative voting
A type of block voting but where the voter can choose, from the list of (for example) ten candidates running for four seats, his preferred four, or just two or even one. In such decisions, the selected candidates would get one quarter of a vote each, or half a vote, or where only one candidate received the vote, the whole vote.
dark horse candidate
An unexpected, somewhat unknown candidate with little public exposure who has potential to win an election against established candidates. Term originated by British politician and author, Benjamin Disraeli.
   deficit /       national debt
The shortfall in any one year of a nation’s income as compared to its expenditure / the total unpaid accumulated debt of the government over time.
deficit spending
Government intentionally spending more money than it takes in.
delegated legislation
a.k.a. enabling legislation. Rules, regulations, by-laws, ordinances etc made by a government official under the authority of a specific act of parliament which sets out the broad purpose of what is desired, but delegates to that official’s office, the authority to create the minutia, the delegated legislation, necessary.  Whereas all parliamentary legislation is final and cannot be challenged in court (apart from constitutional inconsistencies) delegated legislation can be challenged in court if it is shown to violate the purpose of the original act.
demagogue
A leader who gains popularity by appealing to prejudice and basic instincts. Considered manipulative and dangerous.
democracy
From the Greek ‘demos’ for the ordinary, common people and ‘kratos’ for power or strength.
deontology
The concept of moral obligation and binding duty. As compared to consequentialism, where an act is judged by its consequences (the ends justify the means), D. is where goodness or righteousness is judged by the act alone (the means justify the means).
descriptive / normative ethics
Descriptive ethics is the study of what people think is moral; normative, or prescriptive, ethics is the study of what is moral; meta-ethics is the study of what ‘moral’, or any other term, actually means.
devolution
Transfer of powers from the national or central government to state or local government.
direct democracy
Government by the people in fact rather than merely in principle. The citizenry themselves voting on all issues affecting them. Practised in ancient Greece and (to some degree) in some cantons of Switzerland and the New England states of America. Considered by most to be a highly impractical form of government.
dirigisme
Direct government control of a country's economic and social institutions. From the French ‘diriger’ to direct.
disinformation
Information that is false or misleading deliberately disseminated for strategic gain. a.k.a. black propaganda.
division [Aust]
A vote taken in Parliament. Also another name for an electorate.
donkey vote
The excess votes a candidate at the top of the ballot paper will get because of those voters who don’t bother to consider their decision but simply just tick the first box in sight. Otherwise known as the unthinking vote.
doublespeak
Using language to distort or even reverse the meaning of unpalatable information that has to be given. Allegedly the amalgam of two George Orwell’s creations from his novel 1984, Doublethink and Newspeak.
‘Dorothy Dixer’
Questionable practice in Australian parliaments where some of the allocated time in ‘Question Time’ is used for back bench MPs to ask their own leaders prearranged softball questions. Dorothy Dix was an American newspaper advice columnist who prefered questions she made up herself.
duchess
To court or curry favour for political or other advantage
Duverger’s Law
Theory attributed to French political scientist Maurice Duverger, which asserts a nexus in the number of political parties in a democratic state with the electoral system used. Proportional Representation nurtures a growth in parties catering to most people’s needs while SMV systems over time, restrict parties to only two.
duumvirate / triumvirate / quadrumvirate
Latin terms to describe a group of two / three / four people joined in authority or office.
dynasty
A sequence of hereditary rulers.
dystopia
Alternative to Utopia. Nightmare vision of society beyond that of even a failed, dysfunctional state, where the system is actually planned by those in power, creating, most often, a totalitarian society.  Fictional examples are Jack London’s The Iron Heel and George Orwell’s 1984.
elector
Technically, a voter who is successful in helping to get his preferred candidate elected. In practice the name often given by governments to voters in normal elections, or to those who have been appointed to a certain level so as to vote their choice to a higher office. Eg. the American Electoral College to choose the President. Term possibly used to disguise the fact that approximately half of all voters in SMV systems end up electing nobody.
electorate
Geographical areas used as a criterion for political representation. Australia is divided into 150 (federal) voting districts or divisions which are known as electorates. One member is elected from each electorate to the House of Representatives. In Parliament the electorate of Batman will be represented by the Member for Batman who will have the Seat of Batman.
émigré
One who leaves their home country for political reasons.
the Enlightenment
a.k.a. the Age of Reason. 18th century epoch of intellectual advancement where “humanity was brought into the light of reason out of the darkness of tradition and prejudice”. Originating in the UK but developing fully in continental countries such as France with thinkers such as Spinoza, Voltaire and Rousseau.
enrolment
The pre-requisite to voting. The voters name must be on the electoral roll before he/she can vote. Australian citizens of at least 18 yrs are allowed (and compelled) to enrol. In the USA voters must repeatedly enrol for every election.
equity law
An auxiliary part of common law where the courts not only have authority to modify existing common law to adapt to modern times, but in fact have the power to create original law, overriding  existing common law, in circumstances where it is deemed that without it, “unconscionable” conduct would occur.
the Executive
That part of government which executes  the law of the land, as compared to the legislature which creates and maintains the law. The executive comprises public service officials from the Prime Minister/ President down, and is responsible for the daily administration of the state.
exchange rate
The relationship of the values of any two country’s currencies. Any one-off reading is informative when taking into account what each country’s unit of currency will buy in its own domestic market. Also relevant is when the rate changes over time indicating one country’s economy is not doing as well as the other.
ex officio
“by virtue of one’s office”. The power to do something or hold an office by virtue of the fact that one holds an earlier office. The American Vice President is, ex officio, the President of the Senate.
Fabian Society
A movement founded in 1884 by intellectuals Sidney and  Beatrice Webb and George Bernard Shaw who believed the only possible way to introduce socialism would be in an incremental way using education and gradual legislative changes. Named after the Roman general Fabius Cunctator (“the delayer”) who possessed the patience to defeat the Carthaginian Hannibal by engaging in a slow war of attrition and harassment.
fascism
An authoritarian and nationalist political ideology that embraces strong leadership, singular collective identity and the will to commit violence or wage war to further the interests of the state. Averse to concepts such as individualism, pluralism, multiculturalism or egalitarianism. The name derives from the collective identity, the league connotation of the Italian fascio, or English faggot, for a bound collection of sticks. The symbol originally used by Mussolini was a ‘fascio’ of sticks bound with that connotation of war, an axe.
federalism
A system under which governmental powers are divided between the central government and the states or provinces all within the same geographical territory. Opposite to a unitary system as exists in the UK, New Zealand and Japan.
fellow traveller
Mid-twentieth century term to describe someone who sympathised with communism but would not go so far as to declare themselves a communist or join the party.
fence mending
A politician returning to his electorate hoping to restore his reputation with the voters.
fifth columnist
In a military or political environment, a person who surreptitiously undermines a group or entity from within. Term derived from a Nationalist General during the Spanish Civil War who boasted he had four columns of troops attacking Madrid, together with a fifth column of sympathises inside the city. The practice of the F.C. is sometimes described as ‘entryism’. The Alec Guinness character in the film Dr Zhivago was a war-time fifth columnist.
filibuster
A form of legislative obstruction by an MP by continuing a parliamentary speech for the mere sake of preventing a vote. As the clerk of parliament will set an agenda calendar allocating certain bills for certain days, if the business of reading, debating and voting on one bill is not completed on its allotted day it may be a considerable period of time before it again comes before the house.
first-past-the-post
Electoral system where the winning candidate needs only the most votes, even if well below a majority.  a.k.a. pluralist voting.
franchise
The right to vote.
free vote
[cmlth countries]
a.k.a. a conscience vote. The rare instance where an M.P. is not obliged to vote according to his/her party’s call. Examples have been the 1996 Victorian drug law reform or the 1995 Northern Territory’s euthanasia law.
Friday news dump
a.k.a. ‘take out the trash day’. The practice of governments releasing their unpopular news stories just before the weekend as it is believed few people follow the news on a Saturday. Not only the timing is effective for what the government wants to hide but also the act of lumping together as many stories as possible so as to minimise the effect of each one.
fixed term
Concept to describe the set term of office of representatives (eg US House of Reps is a strict two years) as compared to other democracies like the UK where the House of Commons is a maximum of five years but can be shorter at the discretion of the Prime Minister.
fourth estate
The unofficial political institution and authority comprising the press and other forms of the media. Term comes from the first three estates of the French States-General which were the church, the nobility and the townsmen.
free rider
Someone who unintentionally is able to receive the benefits of government policy without incurring the costs.
from each according to his ability...
“From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs”. Slogan not created, but made popular by Karl Marx in a 1875 publication, to highlight a fundamental aspect of communism. Allegedly a response to the capitalist concept of private property.
gauche caviar
(Left wing caviar eater). French derogatory term for a socialist in theory who still maintains a luxurious lifestyle. English equivalent: Champagne socialist, Bollinger Bolshevik; American: limousine liberal; Italian: radical chic; Australian: Chardonnay socialist.
general election
Either an election that is not local but is for the state or national governments or an election that is the final arbiter after the preliminary ones have been dispensed with. Can be contrasted to council, primary or by-elections.
Georgism
Nineteenth century philosophy created by American economist Henry George which advocated that things found in nature, such as land, always remains property of the state.  Government revenue is thus raised by rents on land (at an unimproved rate), minerals and fishing licences etc to the degree that hopefully no other taxes might need to be enforced.
gerrymander
How a significant number of equally sized single member electorates become populated with both party voters but to different degrees, to have a partisan and unfair effect on the total vote.
glad-handler
An excessively “friendly” person, typically a politician, who greets another effusively but insincerely in an attempt to gain popularity.
glasnost
A policy that commits government to greater accountability and visibility, such as freedom of information laws. Russian for ‘publicness’.
GNP / GDP
Gross National Product is the total output of goods and services annually produced by a country, whether on or off shore. Gross Domestic Product is the total amount produced on shore, whether by local or foreign entities.
Godwin’s Law
Theory by American journalist Mike Godwin that as an online discussion / argument grows longer the probability of one party comparing the other to Nazis approaches 1.
going negative
A campaigning style where an election candidate will emphasize the negative attributes of the opponent rather than his/ her own positive ones or plans for future governance. Sometimes a legitimate action if the opponent has serious character or competency issues, but otherwise often used to cover up the fact the candidate has little to offer the electorate in experience, vision or concrete plans.
grandfather clause
An exemption to a new law which accommodates already existing entities (metaphoric grandfathers) not having to comply. Eg: existing buildings not needing restructuring to accommodate new building / environmental codes. A law increasing the drinking age from 18 to 21 but exempting those under 21 who were already entitled to consume alcohol. In 2004 Australian PM John Howard, under political pressure, lowered govt. contributions to MPs superannuation from 15% to the standard 9%. However he exempted already serving MPs, allowing them to remain on the higher rate.
grass roots
The ordinary and common people, often agrarian. Term generally refers to movements / political parties created by them rather than by professionals, elitists or established leaders.
grievance debate
Short speeches allowed by any MP on any subject but only granted at a specific time per week for a few hours.
groupthink
An attitude often existing in academia or the media where there is found to be unanimity in approaches to certain issues, either due to laziness in research, or fear of the consequences of going against the prevailing wisdom.
gubernatorial
Adjective of Governor.
habeas corpus
Latin for “you have the body”. A writ, issued by a court upon request, for a government authority to present to court a person it is detaining, and give justification as to why he/she should continue to be detained.
Hansard
The official parliamentary record of whatever is said in Parliament.
Hare-Clark
A S.T.V. electoral system used in Tasmania where Robson Rotation is utilised and candidates are not allowed to hand out how-to-vote cards on polling day.
hegemony
Dominance or leadership of one state or social group over another.
hoi polloi
The common people, as compared to the wealthy, higher educated or elite.
Huey P. Long
Quintessential populist, corrupt, demagogue of modern times who served as governor of the US state of Louisiana from 1928 to 1932, then Senator until 1935. Master of political patronage who became the model for the novel and film titled “All the Kings Men”. Eventually assassinated by a relative of one of his victims.
the hustings
Involved in political campaigning, especially making speeches. The husting was originally a place of assembly at which to speak. US equivalent is “on the stump”, derived from speaking when standing upon a tree stump.
hollow men
Conviction free, consensus driven politicians who live by the polls and whose only goal appears to be to achieve and maintain political power. Found in major parties on both sides of the political divide but generally more prevalent with conservative parties. Term derived from the T.S. Eliot poem of that name in reference to the ‘men of straw’ described.
honeymoon period
The first few months of a new government during which the incumbent/s are granted a non-belligerent grace period by their political opposition and the media.
house of representatives
The largest and most influential house of Parliament. Appoints the cabinet and from which the Prime Minister usually comes. Similar to the British House of Commons and known in Australia as the 'People's House' as compared with the Senate being the ‘State’s House’. Each of the 150 members represents approximately 120,000 people or 80,000 voters.
humanism
Cultural movement during the Renaissance emphasising secularism and classical learning from ancient Greece and Rome; the doctrine that emphasises the human capacity for self-fulfilment without religion.
impeachment
The legislative equivalent of a criminal prosecution, where a high government official is subject, by a house of Parliament or Congress, to an investigation, indictment and subsequent trial.
incumbent
The current holder of a seat in the legislature or of an office of authority.
interregnum
An interval of normal government, such as between administrations.
invisible hand
The free market theory of 18th century economist Adam Smith that there is an invisible hand to guarantee, that without government, there will always be a supply to placate demand. “It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own self interest.”
isolationism
A policy of isolating one’s country from military alliances or other commitments  with all other countries as a best resort to avoiding foreign entanglements. Historically a strong sentiment in the USA. President Woodrow Wilson won a second term in 1916 in promising (falsely) to keep America out of WWI, and the US was conspicuous in not joining the newly formed League of Nations. Prior to WWII aviator Charles Lindberg was prominent in the popular America First Committee which attempted to prevent the US being a participant in that war.
jingoism
A nineteenth and twentieth century term to describe chauvinistic, bellicose expressions of nationalism, especially in warlike pursuits. The term is often associated with US President Teddy Roosevelt.
jobs for the boys
A type of political nepotism where prestigious government jobs are given to those in the party family- often those voted out of office or otherwise unemployed- rather than those deserving due to merit. Ironically the term once had a legitimate meaning in the previous century when it was used to express public gratitude for demobbed soldiers returning home from war. See also ‘nomenklatura’
judicial activism
A judicial philosophy advocating that courts are allowed to take an active role, not supported by existing law, to remedy alleged wrongs in society.
junta
A clique, faction or cabal, often military, taking power after an overthrow of the government. From the latin ‘juncta’ for join.
jus ad bellum
The alleged justification a country will use to go to war.
Keynesianism
Theories of very influential economist of the twentieth century, John Maynard Keynes, who advocated government taxing and spending to keep control on the economy. In times of recession he advocated high government spending on public works as well as intervention into the economy wherever it was thought necessary.
kitchen cabinet
An informal name for the chief executive’s closest advisers.
kleptocracy
Cynical term used to describe highly corrupt governments where politicians, bureaucrats and their protected friends engage in sales of government licences, perquisites and other rorts.

laissez-faire
Fr. for “allow to do”. An economic system with total or near total abstinence of state interference.
Leader of the House
A lower house MP of the ruling party who has been appointed to organise and arrange the various proceedings of that house.
left wing
see ‘right wing / left wing’
Levellers
An early grass roots, neo-libertarian, urban, political group which existed  in the UK during and after the English Civil War. They advocated self ownership, electoral reform, separation of powers, limited use of the death penalty, religious toleration, and removal of government restrictions on trade and land use. Were given the name by the privileged aristocracy and wealthy traders who feared their estates would be levelled.
liberal democracy
A vague term to reflect democracy controlled by restraints that only allow the seemingly good. Ie. A constitution or entrenched common law that protects such institutions as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, a moderately free market, an independent judiciary, the rule of law, separation of powers, minority rights and the notion of the individual.
liberalism
(small l)
Loosely described as a modern philosophy which favours change for change’s sake, as well as encompassing a compromising and compassionate attitude to personal lifestyle, law and order, foreign affairs and immigration, where policy decisions are often orientated towards those in more straitened circumstances.
liberalism (classic)
A philosophy advocating the rights of the individual as against the state or church as espoused by such eighteenth century English writers as John Locke and J.S. Mill. Causes advocated would be Laissez Faire economics, freedom of speech, the rule of law, extension of the franchise, amelioration in penal practices, and changing views on relations between the sexes and the upbringing of children. In modern times Classic Liberals have become either libertarians or small ‘l’ liberals.
libertarianism
A political philosophy of self reliance, reason and maximum non-interference by the state in matters of both economic and personal affairs. Straddling both left and right, a libertarian would believe in the right to bear arms, access to IVF or hallucinatory drugs for any adult, a free market capitalist economy and the abolition of censorship.
limited government
A right wing concept that espouses the practice that any public service that could reasonably be solely supplied by the market, or harmful action that could be self regulated or otherwise controlled by public censure, should be.
limited war
A war, often not formally declared, fought to obtain specific political / territorial objectives, rather than to obtain the unconditional surrender of the enemy.
list system P.R.
Above and below the line proportional representation voting. Voters do not have to cast preferences but can tick above the line for the candidates/parties of their choice who themselves choose (before the election) the list of preferred other candidates to which their unused votes will go.
lower house
In Australia the House of Representatives or (state wide) the Legislative Assembly. Generally the more populous and influential legislative house.
lobbyist
Someone who acts professionally to serve as a go-between for people or business with a complaint about specific legislation and the relevant government minister/secretary. It is in the interests for politicians to not only keep attuned of the effect of possibly problematic legislation but also to have that communicated in quick and efficient manner by an experienced and knowledgeable operator. The fact that corruption often occurs in the lobbying process does not deny that lobbying is still mostly a legitimate function. Term derived from hotel lobbies where politicians were originally approached by applicants.
logrolling
A practice in American legislatures where two or more members agree to support each other’s bills.
Luddites
Nineteenth century British tradesman who rebelled against the technology of the industrial revolution making them obsolete, by organising riots to destroy the textile machinery of the day. Named after a mythical King Ludd. Term now used to describe those opposed to technological  progress.
lumpen proletariat
Proletariat without job skills.
luvvie
Derogatory term for pretentious artistic or theatrical people claiming and /or receiving special benefits or privileges.
mace
Large, intimidating, medieval, hand held weapon. Appears with the speaker in lower houses and used as a symbol of authority.
Machiavellian
Adjective to describe manipulative and cynical political activity where morals and principles have little account. Somewhat unfairly attributed to Renaissance political theorist Niccolo Machiavelli who wrote for an age where government and diplomacy had more life or death consequences.
maiden speech
The first ever speech  given by an MP in Parliament and traditionally granted the courtesy of no interjections.
majority preferential
Preferential voting in single member electorates.
malapportionment
Violating the concept of ‘one person one vote’, the existence of electorates of unequal population sizes yet still having the same number of representatives, whereby a partisan political party advantage can very often develop. The practice is still very common in the United Kingdom.
Thomas Malthus
Clergyman and political economist of the eighteenth century who theorised that the world’s population always grows faster than its food supply, and thus, rather than attempting to alleviate perpetual hunger by misguided compassion, allow inevitable famine, disease and war to act as natural retardants to population growth. M. argued from an empiricist point of view against the ideological, theoretical ideas of philosopher William Goldwin and other supporters of the French Revolution who believed in the perfectibility of human kind.
mandate
The alleged command, and thus authority, a winning political party has to institute its pre-election policies because of the fact it had a convincing win.
marginal seat
A S.M.V. electorate where the winning candidate/party only just won the last election and could well lose the next.
means testing
Limiting government benefits, such as a baby bonus or health care, to those below a certain income or accumulated wealth.
mercantilism
A broad, command type, economic doctrine, practised from the 16th to the 18th centuries, which predicated state power in international affairs as the predominate goal. Policies utilised would be: export subsidies; maintaining a positive balance of payments; developing colonies; forbidding trade to be carried in foreign ships; restricting colonies’ trade to only the mother country; maintaining a large as possible precious metal reserve; limiting domestic consumption such as with sumptuary laws.
mixed economy
An economic system which embraces some aspects of free enterprise together with elements of socialism.
monetarism
The theory that the economy is controlled by raising or lowering the money supply.
monocracy
Rule by one person (not necessarily anti-democratic).
monopoly
A situation where there is only one seller of a good or service due to either protection by legislation or the impracticality of other parties to enter the market.
monopsony
A single buyer market for goods or services. Opposite to monopoly.
moral relativism
Loosely described as a philosophical concept whereby an act universally identified as immoral in the home country is however excused when observed in another because of the culture or history of that country.
motherhood statement
A ‘feel good’ platitude supporting an uncontroversial cause that few would dare disagree with.
muckraker
A journalist / author whose goal is to only find the negative character traits / history of his subject. Term coined by Teddy Roosevelt in reference to a Pilgram’s Progress character with a muckrake who could only look down.
negative rights / positive rights
The right to do, or refrain from, an action or otherwise be free from interference, as compared to the right to gain a specific benefit that would have a monetary value. The right to speak freely / the right to having legal representation supplied when in court. Term derives from the obligation on society for supplying those rights: a positive obligation to supply the cost of a lawyer while there is no (negative) cost to allow someone the right of free association.
NGO
A non-profit non-government organisation.
nimby
Not -In -My -Back -Yard. A pejorative term to describe opposition to any public policy decision, which in itself is considered beneficial, but may happen to cause discomfort, for geographical reasons or other, when it is actually put into practice. For example airports, prisons or power plants placed in one’s own vicinity, or austerity measures which may cause budget cuts also to those who thought they might have been excluded.
nomenklatura
The system of patronage for Party members applied during the existence of the USSR. A list of individuals drawn up by the Communist Party from which were selected candidates for vacant senior positions in the state, party, and other important organizations. From the Latin nomenclatura for ‘list of names’.
nomination
A prerequisite to standing as a political candidate. Made only after the writ for an election has been issued. A financial deposit (which will be returned on the candidate receiving a reasonable number of votes) must also be lodged.
OECD
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Founded in 1961 to stimulate world trade and economic progress, a group of 34 first world countries, committed to democracy and the market economy, who organise mutual plans to maintain taxation conventions and fiscal stability, combat corruption and bribery as well as other endeavours such as annual publications on the world economic outlook.
oligarchy
A form of government where rule is by the few and in their own interest.
ombudsman
A concept, originally Swedish, where parliament appoints a person to act as an official watchdog over bureaucracy on behalf of the public. On its own initiative or from public complaints, the Ombudsman will investigate government officials or departments and report its finding to parliament, whereupon action may be taken. The office of the Ombudsman itself has no power to penalise, although in some jurisdictions the Ombudsman can launch criminal prosecutions.
optional preferential voting
Preferential voting where one has the option to choose to mark off only the number of preferences as one wishes.
ordinary vote
As compared with a postal vote, a vote cast at a polling place in the elector's home division on polling day.
the Overton window
Modern concept advanced by political theorist Joseph Overton whereby there is a small window of political acceptable approaches on any given subject at any time and approaches / ideas not within the window would resultantly be considered extreme and politically unsafe for a politician to uphold. Thus most mainstream politicians only choose from policies within the window, or only publicly declare the policies they believe in, if and when the window should move in their direction.
pairing
An informal practice occurring in Parliamentary systems (where voting cannot be by proxy) where a member of one party will agree not to vote on a specific bill if an opposing member would prefer not to be present. The understanding is that the favour may be reciprocated at a later date.
palm tree justice
Expedient justice applied in good faith but absent of the rule of law: paying little or no attention to existing law, precedent or fundamental principles. Reminiscent of primitive societies where justice was received by the wise old man sitting under the palm tree.
parachute in
The central office of a political party appointing the candidate for a certain electorate at the next election, rather than the usual practice of being appointed by the local branch.
parliamentary privilege
The privilege while (physically) in Parliament that allows an MP to say anything without fear of prosecution for slander. Also Parliament itself has the privilege to summon, cross-examine, judge and punish entities that have deemed to offend against it. In Italy P.P. grants an MP immunity from arrest for criminal charges.
parliamentary government
A system of government where ultimate authority is vested in the legislative body. The cabinet, including the chief executive, is from, appointed by and responsible to, the legislature (the Parliament). Alternative to what is known as a presidential system, where both the legislature and executive are independently appointed by the voters.
participation rate
The share of the potential workforce (15-65, not institutionalised), working or seeking work.
party line voting
Despite the fact that MPs in Parliament ‘represent’ the residents of their specific electorates, at voting time they will almost always vote (unless an independent) strictly according to their party’s call, i.e. as directed by their leader rather than according to the wishes of their own constituents.
party list voting
Above the line only proportional representation voting. Voters do not cast preferences but the candidates/parties themselves choose (before the election) the list of preferred other candidates to which their unused votes will go.
perestroika
Term to denote political, bureaucratic or economic restructuring first coined by Mikhail Gorbachev with regards to the former Soviet Union.
Pericles
Esteemed Athenian leader of ancient Greece who, while advancing the material and cultural aspects of his city state, also did much to enhance democracy.
photo op
A photo op (opportunity) is a situation where a politician accepts an invitation to, or arranges an event, or pseudo-event, where the setting and circumstances are such that they will attract the media and thus give him/her exposure.
platform
The political agenda of a candidate or party.
plebiscite
A public vote to gauge public opinion on an issue (such as conscription) which does not affect the constitution nor is otherwise legally binding. 
plebeian /  patrician
The two citizen classes of ancient Rome. The allegedly course and crude, ordinary Plebeians and the wealthy, educated and aristocratic ‘born to rule’ Patricians. Both terms used today in a derogatory manner. US President G.H.W. Bush was often described as patrician due to his being born into a wealthy political family, treating political life as a duty rather than as an opportunity for reformist zeal, and allegedly not being in touch with the concerns of ordinary Americans.
plutocracy
Government controlled by or greatly influenced by, the wealthy.
primary election
Mostly occurring in America, an election where the successful candidate wins no actual office but merely becomes eligible to contest the upcoming official election representing a particular party.
prince
Term to denote the son of an hereditary monarch but also that of a non hereditary ruler in his or her own right. Developed from the Latin “princeps” for chief, or most distinguished ruler. Machiavelli’s seminal treatise on political philosophy and how to acquire and maintain power was titled “The Prince”.
political party status
Candidates with a common cause can register at an election as a party, and thus enjoy certain privileges such as ‘above the line’ placement and public funding if attaining a certain percentage of the vote, as long as they can present to officials the names and address of sufficient numbers of supporters. Certain P.P.S. privileges also apply to winning candidates of a party if their numbers reach a certain threshold.
politico
One interested or engaged in politics.
polity
Form or process of civil government; organized society; the state.
poll
A research survey as well as another word for an election.
polling place/booth
Numerous centres set up in each division to take the votes of the local people.
populace
The common people.
populist democracy
Ultimate democracy not restricted by a constitution or any other reviewing authority to the passage of legislation or executive orders. The alternative to liberal democracy.
populism
Political campaigning orientated towards true democracy (voting for specific benefits, liberties, law and order programs, etc.)  rather than representative democracy where one votes for a team of alleged responsible candidates who will, at a measured pace and after due deliberation, institute a program under some general theme (even if specific legislation is mentioned). Populists will promise their agenda despite whatever institutional obstructions may exist, while  non-populists will take a more conservative approach respecting the judiciary, the constitution, the bureaucracy and the examples of international approaches to the same issues.
populist politician
Cynically speaking, how a losing candidate describes a winning candidate. Otherwise, a politician who offers the people what they want irrespective of how moral, feasible or practical it is for such promises to be carried out.
pork barrell spending
Politicians arranging big spending government contracts in their own electorates so as to enhance their reputation with their constituents. More prevalent in governments with SMV electoral systems.
positivist / naturalist law
Two opposing branches of legal philosophy, either of which judges use to aid decision making. Naturalist law theory is that law is the ageless law of nature, deduced by the reasoning process of the interpreter or the teachings of God, and should be followed even where it may conflict with duly constituted legislation. Positivist law theory is simply following the democratically instituted law of the land no matter how rational and just it may, or may not, appear to be.
poverty line
Technically the minimal income one needs to cover the basic necessities of a healthy life: fuel, food, clothing, shelter and basic household and personal items. However some economists and other commentators tend to use the term to describe a different concept, Relative Poverty, whereby the line is set as a percentage of the country’s median income ( the OECD and the European Union use 60%), immaterial of how much it would fluctuate with the nation’s GDP.
pragmatism
A non-ideological approach to political issues where “the merits of the particular case” may take a higher than normal precedence.
Pravda
State owned and controlled newspaper of the Soviet Union and an official organ of the Central Committee of the Communist Party between 1921 and 1991. Russian for ‘truth’.  Derogatory term for media organs such as TV or newspapers which are owned by, or to some degree supported by, government.
preferential voting
Also known as Choice Voting, the Alternative Vote or Instant Runoff Voting. Voters do not simply tick off one candidate/party but vote for a number in order of their preference with the intention that at the least, one choice will be elected. In Australia the term is sometimes curiously used as a synonym for single member voting.
pre-poll votes
Voting prior to election day by post or attending a special AEC office. Permitted when the voter would be absent on election day.
presidential system
As opposed to parliamentary government, a constitutional framework where the executive is directly appointed by and responsible to, the people. eg, France, Sth Korea, Philippines & USA.
primary vote
The number of first choice votes that a candidate receives in Preferential voting systems.            See also    Two Party Preferred
private member’s bill
Proposed legislation introduced not by the government or opposition but by just an individual MP.
progressive / flat /regressive tax
Progressive income tax, as espoused in ‘plank’ 2 of Karl Marx’s The Communist Manifesto, is a graduated tax where the rate increases as the income of the tax payer gets higher. Flat tax is where all tax payers pay the same rate of their income to the state, (eg. 15%). Regressive taxation is where the rate decreases as the income of the payer increases. In all three situations high earners pay more actual tax than low earners, but when progressive tax is utilised what manifests is more effort and resources spent on creating (and combating) tax avoidance schemes.
proletariat
Term used in Marxist ideology to describe the working class who don’t own property and whose only value is their labour.
property right
The right to use, control, benefit and exclude others from any tangible or intangible object.
proportional representation
A voting system where the whole state is just one electorate and parties win seats in proportion to the total votes they receive in an election. Hybrid systems often exist where the state is divided up into a number of multi-member electorates whereby seats won are approximately proportional to the votes cast.
prorogue
To temporarily bring parliament to an end (such as for a summer break) as compared with a dissolution which occurs before an election.
pro tem
Abbreviation of the Latin pro tempore, meaning “for the time being”. The phrase to describe a person who temporarily takes the role of an absent superior. Eg. “She is mayor pro tem until the elected mayor returns.”
provisional vote
Votes cast at an election in circumstances where a voter's name cannot be found on the roll or has already been marked off the roll. They are not counted until a careful check of enrolment records has been made.
psephology
Greek for voting with pebbles. The statistical and / or predictive study of elections.
public choice theory
The study of politics from an economic perspective. Rather than assuming politicians, civil servants and voters are all motivated by what should be done, the analysis of how all three very often take self-interest into account when making decisions.
pundit
A commentator with knowledge of contemporary politics. Hindi for “learned one”.
quango
Quasi Autonomous Non-Government Organisation. A body financed by government but not under its direct control.
Question Time
One of the tenets of Responsible Government whereby, for a set period of time each sitting day in parliament, government ministers must be answerable to any MP’s questions, even though in practice there is nothing to prevent answers from being evasive.
quota
In proportional representation systems, the percentage or actual number of votes a candidate needs to win one of the seats available. For Australian half-Senate elections it is approximately 14.3%
quota preferential
Preferential voting used in conjunction with proportional representation.
rapprochement
The renewal or establishment of friendly relations between states which were previously hostile towards each other.
realpolitik
The politics of realism. Rather than from principle, a self interested approach to politics either from the standpoint of one’s party or, in international affairs, from one’s country.
recall
Electoral procedure practised in Canada and many American states whereby an elected official, including the chief executive, can be recalled from office by the voters if there are sufficient signatures on a petition.
recession
A country’s economic status achieved following two consecutive quarters of a drop in real GNP.
redistribution
In SMV systems the periodical redrawing of electoral boundaries to ensure each electorate conforms to the prerequisites of the electoral laws, such as having equal numbers of voters for that State or Territory.
referendum
A public vote with possibly legally binding consequences.
rent seeker
Term created by American economist Anne Krueger. Someone who attempts to make an income by manipulating the social or political or economic environment to his advantage, in the form of political lobbying, rather than actually creating goods or services himself. The “rent” coming to him is usually from government enforced monopoly privileges, or government grants paid for “services” which the free market might not otherwise see as of any value.
repatriation
The sending back of someone to his country of origin such as an illegal immigrant or prisoner of war.
representative democracy
In modern times what is commonly know as a democracy, even though the people do not directly vote on actual issues and laws but surrender that right to their duly elected representatives.
republic
Defined by some sources as simply a democracy, but otherwise loosely described as a form of government where, in word or deed, rule is constrained by institutional frameworks and is not by the selected few. Not an oligarchy but not necessarily a democracy. The Roman Republic was the original precedent for republicanism. Apartheid South Africa, by this definition, was a republic.
responsible government
When government evolved from an independent authoritative monarch in conjunction with a people’s parliament to a subservient monarch together with a prime minister and parliament, it was said that government (the executive in the form of the prime minister and cabinet) became responsible to parliament. Now taken to be synonymous with parliamentary government.
retrospective legislation
a.k.a. ex post facto laws. Laws defining behaviour upon which one can be held criminally liable or responsible in civil court or otherwise liable for payment (such as taxation), even when that behaviour may have happened before the enactment of said laws. More prevalent in autocracies as it violates the traditional concept of the rule of law, although is known to sometimes happen in democracies.
right wing / left wing
‘on the right’ would be loosely described as a political philosophy which favours conservative, pro-market,  attitudes with a preference for (some) individual rights over interventionist government, a strict approach to law and order, and  a strong defence force and a sense of nationalism.
‘on the left’ would be, loosely, opposite to the above together with a so called ‘womb to tomb’ approach to social welfare and an internationalist world view.
Terms originated in the French Estates General in 1789 when the nobility who favoured complacency sat on the King’s right and those who wanted change and amelioration of the peasant’s conditions sat on the left.
RINO / LINO
American acronyms to describe people embracing  faux political positions. Republican In Name Only / Liberal In Name Only.
Robson Rotation
An electoral method practised in places such as Tasmania where multiple printings of ballot papers are made so as to rotate the first spot equally amongst all the candidates. An attempt to eliminate the Donkey Vote.
Royal Commission
A one-off, open inquiry into a specific issue which has raised public concern, instigated by the executive government but operated independently from it. The commissioner is often a retired judge and his given terms of reference strictly limit the bounds of the investigation.  Despite that, the commissioner has considerably powers, from the summoning of witnesses, the granting of indemnity, allowing evidence not normally allowed in a court of law such as hearsay or government classified documents, to forcing testimony even from officials of the government itself.
roll
The list of voters eligible to vote at an election.
rule of law
 The traditional legal concept, dating back as far as Aristotle, that we live under a set of predetermined rules rather than the arbitrary “wise guidance” of any contemporary judge, King or chief executive. Does not necessarily imply democratic or just rule, but simply stable government where the law is proclaimed, followed, and applied equally to all. Term derived by 19th century British jurist A.C. Dicey.
All people are subject equally to the privileges and penalties of the law.
The people are ruled by laws and not by individuals. (both the judiciary and the executive are to act only according to law rather than to their own beliefs of what is justice)
The law shall be prospective, visible, clear, and relatively stable.
Due process must be afforded to all those before the law (following the letter of the law).
safe seat
Where the electorate is filled with supporters of predominately one party and thus is considered safe by that party at election time.   a.k.a. blue ribbon seat.
scrutiny
The checking and counting of ballot papers to ascertain the result of an election. Political parties are allowed representatives on such occasions.
separation of powers
Derived by Charles Montesquieu, a traditional concept of liberalism where, for the sake of limiting abuse of power, the three branches of government: the executive, the legislature and the judiciary remain independent. In modern times the best examples are some American states where all branches have tangible power and, because of separate elections, no branch is appointed by nor can be removed by, another branch. Less than perfect examples would be parliamentary systems: the executive directly appointed, and removed, by the legislature, and the judiciary directly appointed by the executive.
shadow cabinet
The ‘would be’ cabinet of the opposition party in Parliament.
single member voting (SMV)
As opposed to proportional representation, the system where only one candidate represents all the citizens of an electorate/ geographical area. Also known as  Majoritarian voting when preferences are allowed on the ballot paper.
single transferable vote (STV)
A proportional representation voting system where there is no “above the line” option to vote for a party, but only for individual candidates in preferred order. Thus a party’s winning candidates may not be in the same order as on the party’s “ticket”, and their voters’ preferences may not necessarily go where the party would have liked. However due to the relative complexity of voting and vote counting, invalid ballot papers would be higher and election results would take longer to ascertain.
The Social Contract
An 18th century philosophical concept used to attempt to explain the understanding by which  people originally left their solitary, wilderness existence  and came together under the auspices of government. Theorist Thomas Hobbes first claimed that the contract entailed each individual surrendering all his rights, save that of life, in exchange for the protection of the Crown. A half century later philosopher John Locke modified that to state that not only life, but certain other fundamental rights, albeit not necessarily democratic,  were retained by the people and that they were legitimate in overthrowing any state that violated those rights.
socialism
A method of government in which the means of planning and producing goods and services are controlled by a central government which also seeks to collect the wealth of the nation and distribute it evenly amongst its citizens.
social engineering
The practice certain people believe in whereby it is held that it is not enough that governments create for the citizenry an environment where there is an adequate standard of living together with good health care, minimum crime and basic freedoms. Governments, it is claimed, must also engineer that the beliefs, attitudes and practices of the citizenry conform to what is decreed, at the time, to be socially, physiologically and intellectually acceptable.
sortition
An electoral system whereby candidates do not win office by popular choice but by lottery.    Popular in ancient Greece but rarely used today even though occasionally advocated by reformists.
speaker
The adjudicator in lower house debates and divisions (votes). An elected MP who does not vote unless there would otherwise be a tie. Always a government MP unless the government has only a bare majority in which case independents are usually chosen. Upper house equivalent is President.
spin
To tell a news story in a certain way so as to turn the emphasis in a politically favourable direction.
state of nature
The natural condition of humankind living in a primitive environment before governments developed.  Existence was a perpetual struggle for sustenance, shelter and protection from the potential harm of others, and life was, to quote English philosopher Thomas Hobbes, “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
straw man argument
Addressing and refuting an argument your opponents didn’t actually make, even though at first glance it might appear they could make it. A human figure made of straw such as a military target dummy or scarecrow is always easily destroyed or knocked down.
sunset clause
A provision or clause inserted in legislation to declare its expiry date. Most legislation does not contain such clauses as the intention is that laws are permanent, at least until subsequent conflicting acts.
supply side economics
The economic theory espousing the concept that when the supply side of the economy (the producers) is taxed less and subject to less regulation it creates more profit and the tax on that increased profit, even at a lower rate, is equivalent to or even surpasses the original tax. Apotheosis of SSE is the flat rate income tax.
swing
How electoral results change between elections. Eg: “There has been a 15% swing towards Labour in this seat since the 2001 election”
swinging voter
Voters who are not loyal to any particular party but swing from one party to another according to the circumstances of the time.
syndicalism
Early twentieth century revolutionary political doctrine whereby the means of production is taken over in a general strike by worker’s unions who then will effectively take over government.
Ta′mmany Hall
19th century headquarters of the American Democratic Party which became notorious for political corruption.
Tea Party
A grass roots American political movement (not a political party) advocating adherence to the Constitution as well as reining in alleged excessive taxing and spending by the government. Term derived by advocates sending tea bags (symbolising the Boston Tea Party) to congresspersons who had a reputation for supporting large spending bills.
theocracy
Government controlled by the church/priesthood or a proclaimed living god. Examples could be ancient Egypt and modern day Iran.
think tank
A non government, non-profit, research institute of scholars / physical scientists generally dedicated to the advocacy of some broad political, economic or social belief.
Tolpuddle Martyrs
Early 19th century British agricultural labourers who were convicted of the then crime of swearing oaths to each other (which happened to refer to a friendly society / union) and sentenced to transportation to Australia. Most eventually released due to public protest.
totalitarian
A government that wishes to subordinate the individual to the state by controlling not only all political and economic matters, but also by seeking to control the attitudes, values, and beliefs of its population.
transfer value
In preferential voting, proportional representation elections a winning candidate’s surplus votes are transferred to the next available candidate. This is achieved by transferring all of the ballot papers, but at a fraction of their value.
trial balloon
A novel idea put forward, but not embraced, by a politician in order to gauge its popularity.
tragedy of the commons
The concept espousing the impracticality of communally owned resources such as grazing land or ponds for fishing, etc. Individuals acting independently will maximise their benefits above others thus in time depleting the common resource. Alternatively, where resources are  privately owned there is an incentive to moderate its exploitation so as to preserve for the owner further use.
trojan horse
An organisation with an innocuous or ‘motherhood statement’ type title used to gain public acceptance so as to introduce programs, funding or legislation of a more partisan nature than one is led to believe.
turnout
The percentage of enrolled citizens who actually vote.
two-party-preferred
The final tally for the two more popular candidates/parties of all votes (whether 1st 2nd or 3rd choice etc) in single member Preferential Voting systems.
tyranny of the majority
A concept first coined in the nineteenth century by French writer Alexis de Tocqueville and also embraced by John Stuart Mill, who claimed that even democracies had limitations in that minority rights could be forfeited in the pursuit of popular causes. Possible solutions to such tyranny could be a constitutionally entrenched bill of rights, proportional representation, or a democracy divided up into a federation where peoples of different beliefs and values could gravitate to separate geographical areas that maintained their own distinct laws and practices.
upper house
Often known as the Senate, and in federations as the 'States' House'. Traditionally the smaller but more elitist  “house of review” populated by members of the titled, landed, financial or educational aristocracy. With some exceptions (Canada & the UK) candidates ability to join the upper house is now the same as for the lower house and  members’ prestige is only higher because, as there are fewer in total, each member has more of a voting influence than in the lower house. Often elected by proportional representation. In both Australia and the United States each state sends the same number of senators (twelve and two respectively) to the federal house irrespective of that state’s population.
useful idiot
Description for people of influence who support a cause they fail to understand the full ramifications of, and end up being exploited by the leaders of that cause. Originally attributed to Lenin (although research has failed to confirm this) in describing western personalities such as H.G. Wells, George Bernard Shaw, Paul Robeson and journalist Walter Duranty who visited the USSR during times of famine, were allowed to visit only select areas, and then returned home giving glowing reports of the new “workers’ paradise”.
utilitarianism
Consequentialist philosophy originally espoused by 18th century writer Jeremy Bentham whereby the best policy is that which gives the greatest happiness to the greatest number.
vote of no confidence
In parliamentary systems, where the executive can only exist at the behest of the majority of the legislature, a vote of no confidence (generally by the lower house) would be a death knell for the current administration, and would, unless another coalition of parties could form a majority, precipitate an election.
watermelon
Derogatory term for a Greens politician or supporter who allegedly is more concerned with pushing socialist policies than his or her concern for the environment: green on the outside but red in the centre.
Westminster
British houses of parliament and name for a system where, amongst other attributes, the executive is divided between an ‘above-politics’ head of state and a chief executive appointed by the legislature, a career rather than politically appointed senior public service, and bicameral parliament.
wets and dries
Terms used in British Conservative Party politics since the Thatcher era to describe the moderates and the hardliners. “Wet” originated from British public school vernacular to describe those perceived as weak as being ‘soppy’.  Canadian equivalent is known as a “Red Tory”.
winner-take-all
Either a non-proportional representation or a non-preferential electoral system as is common in both the UK and the USA.
whip
A party whip is a parliamentary party disciplinary officer who ensures that his/her party members do the right thing such as being in attendance for certain crucial votes. A whip is also the notice sent by the aforesaid to members.
wonk
Someone engrossed in the technicalities of some aspect of public policy.
writ
In electoral terms a writ is a document commanding an electoral officer to hold an election and contains dates for the close of rolls, the close of nominations, the polling day and the return of the writ. The issue of a writ triggers the electoral process.
zeitgist
German for ‘spirit of the time’. The prevalent beliefs and attitudes of a place / country at any particular period.