Monday, August 19, 2024

Voice typing samples

 

Some people prefer to spend their free time Outdoors. Others prefer the spend their leisure time indoors. Which idea would you like?


People have two main preferences as to where they choose to spend their free time. Some people prefer to spend their time Outdoors while other people prefer to stay inside doing leisure activities. They both surely have their advantages and disadvantages but I would prefer to spend my time Outdoors because being outside is more fun for my life style and it is also more beneficial for my health.


Most importantly spending free time Outdoors is more fun than spending time indoors. Shaun is a very active person. Sitting indoors is very boring for him because there is no real physical activity. If Sean goes outside there are many that he can do to satisfy his active lifestyle.


Take swimming for example. If Sean Goes Swimming Outdoors he can choose between swimming  in Lakes rivers or the ocean. However if he goes swimming indoors he can only do laps with lots of people behind and in front of him. Thus he can enjoy all of the fun of swimming Outdoors. In addition, in the winter, sean likes to go skiing. This is an activity that is almost impossible for him to do indoors. There's nothing like the freedom of skiing full speed down the side of a beautiful mountain. There is no activity done in doors that can begin to compare with that.


Furthermore, not enough can be said about the health benefits of doing activities Outdoors. When you spend all of your time  inside, you are not only sitting still, but also not getting any fresh air. Even if you do an activity Outdoors that does not require physical exertion, fresh air is definitely a benefit.


For instance,  when you go on a picnic somewhere quiet in the countryside, you can come back feeling refreshed because you spent time in the open air.  your spiritual health is also improved by spending time with nature. It is very important for people to take time to get in touch with nature. It is very important for people to take time to get in touch with nature. By spending time hiking or sitting somewhere quiet in the countryside, people are able to calm down and release all the stress built up from hectic living  .


To sum up, there are certainly fun things to do indoors but the indoor activities should be limited. Spending time Outdoors is more fun and greatly benefits your health physically, mentally and spiritually. If you do not have such exciting experiences in your spare time, you may lose something valuable in your life.

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Is it better to enjoy your money when you earn it or is it better to save your money for some time in the future?


The primary goal for most people when they become adults is to get a job and earn money. Though they have the same goal people have different preferences as to what they do with their money after they earn it. Some people prefer to spend an enjoy their money as they earn it, but there are other people who think is better to save them money for the future . As for me, i prefer to save money because I might need it unexpectedly and it also teaches me discipline in regards to not wasting money.


First of all, it is a good idea to save money for a rainy day. Unexpected events can happen at any time, and you may need money immediately . For example, though people might be in Optimal Health, sickness can strike at any moment. However if people spend all their money and do not save any for an emergency, they could find themselves in a tight financial situation.


In this case they will have to rely on the friends or family to take care of their financial burden that medical care can require. However by saving money as you earn it you can have a feeling of security that will allow you to deal with problems as they arise.


In addition, saving money instead of just spending it teaches us the importance of discipline. It is very tempting to take your entire Paycheck and go out to buy all of the things you want, but it is important for people to learn discipline when handling money.


It is important to learn this at an early age because most people get married and will some day have responsibility for a spouse or children.  due to this responsibility to other people, because money that a family house greatly contributes to the comfort of life. If money is wanted, the level of comfort is lessened.


While it is good to enjoy money made from working hard, it is important not to spend your entire Paycheck. I prefer saving money for the future because you can never know when you are going to have an emergency in which you need some cash. In addition, discipline and handling money is vital for a comfortable life. Although it is okay to have some fun, people need to remember to put some money aside.

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Why people should ride a bicycle for short distance trips?


A bicycle is a mechanism that has transported man for many decades. Nowadays bicycling is great way to move from one place to another in short distances.


I believe you should use a bicycle for short distances. I believe you should use a bicycle for short distances to protect the environment as well as your health. The purpose of this essay is to explain why people should ride a bicycle for short distance trips. By riding a bicycle, people can decrease gasoline consumption, improve the quality of their lives, and protect the environment.


The first reason to use a bicycle for short distances is that you can cause a decrease of pollution. Because many people use their cars to move short distance, they increase the rate of pollution causing more pollution problems to our environment.  that is why the use of a bicycle for short distances is a really good idea to help lower the rates of pollution.


The second reason to use a bicycle for short distances is that you can help lower gasoline consumption. If you use a bicycle or a car to move to a place that is near your home, you will decrease the gasoline consumption of your car. This can save you a lot of money because the price of gas is expensive. Maybe, is the laziness of some people who use their cars to drive to places that are near their homes. However this habit of driving causes an increase of gasoline consumption.


Finally, the most important benefit of riding a bicycle on short trips is that it can help you have good health. When you ride a bicycle you use your legs to move, and this physical exercise is aerobic which means that your heart is pumping blood throughout your body, so it fortifies your heart , lungs, and other parts of your body.


These are some excellent reasons to ride a bicycle. Although using a car is acceptable for long distances, we need to remember that a bicycle will help us even if we are moving only short distances.  i think that we need to make a distinction when it is better to use a car or a bicycle . We need to keep in mind that riding a bicycle well providers with  health and other benefits. A bicycle can save us money in gas and also decrease the rate of pollution. This is why if we use a bicycle, it can improve the quality of life of the person who owns it .

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When people need a complain about a product or  poor service, some prefer the complain and writing and others prefer the complain in person. Which way do you prefer?


It is unfortunate, but sometimes we have to complain about a product or poor service. There are two main ways people do this. Some prefer to send a complaint in writing  while others prefer to complain in person. Although complaining is never fun, i would rather do it in person . My reasons for this are that I can get quicker service and state my reasons for complaining more clearly in person. 


First of all, someone with the complaint can usually get faster service in person then through a letter. When you write a letter , the people at the business may delay in opening and reading the letter. However, if you go down to the place of business, they are forced to deal with your problem at that very moment.  last year I was having trouble with a pizza restaurant because they kept sending me the wrong kind of pizza. I sent them an email complaining about the constant mix ups, but  i received no communication back. Eventually I went down to the restaurant and spoke to the manager face to face. He was very apologetic and I have not had a problem since then. By facing them directly, the people at the business are forced to handle the problem, and it can be resolved more quickly.


What is more, when you complain in person, you can explain yourself more clearly. If you send a letter, there's a chance that your problem will not be understood clearly for a variety of reasons. Maybe the company will not bother the read your letter all the way through or perhaps your writing skills are not sufficient to explain the problem in detail.


However, if you go to the place of business and explain what the problem is, they will have to listen to your complaint from beginning to end. If they did not understand your problem, you will also have the opportunity to make yourself understood. By going there in person, you will probably get the results that you're looking for, compared to what you get by writing a letter.


In a Perfect World, we would not have to think about how to deal with faulty products or poor service, but the reality is that we all encounter these things once in a while. When it happens, it is better to complain in person in order to get quicker service and to be able to explain  your complaint properly.  

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People should  sometimes do things that they do not enjoy doing. Do you agree?


Life is challenging. In order to be happy and successful, we need to prepare ourselves on many fronts .  although participating in enjoyable activities is always desirable, in my view it is  also necessary at times to do things we do not enjoy. The basis for my view are personal social and financial.


Personally, doing things we do not care for  build character and helps us mature. For instance, when parents have first baby they are forced to give up their freedom in order to look after the child . There are times when parents barely get enough sleep and still have to get up and go to work in the morning.


Similarly, when students are in school and  university, they need to spend a lot of time  studying. In spite of being tempted to go out with friends and attend parties, those who have self control and keep their priorities straight are the ones who get high grades. Through such life experiences people become stronger wiser and more responsible.


From a social perspective, we live in and  interdependent  world  which imposes its obligations on us . Each person belongs to diverse social groups and plays various social roles. Each of us has to attend birthday parties, wedding and funerals to show we care about our fellow human beings. Participating in events for the sake of others teaches us to go beyond our own selfish needs and to share in the  the joys and sorrows  of others.


Financially speaking people need to work, and spend, to keep the local, national and international economy growing. We need to support our own family in particular and our community in general. In fact most of us work many more hours than we would like to work . What propels us to continue working  is our financial needs, commitments and obligations. Only in this way are we able to live comfortable lifestyles and save for our retirement days.


In conclusion, life places huge demands on us. By participating in a wide of variety of activities, both pleasant and unpleasant, we can discover more about our unique selves and live Fuller lives.

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Some people think that automobile has improved Modern Life. Others think that the automobile has caused serious problems. what is your opinion?


There have been numerous advancements in nearly every aspect of society over the past century. On aspect of development that has a great deal of controversy surrounding it is the automobile. While some believe that the automobile has greatly improved modern lives, others think it has caused serious problems that outweigh any possible advantages. I believe that automobiles have brought more disadvantages than advantages due to problems such as air pollution and accidents


First, automobiles are a significant source of air pollution. When cars were first manufactured, few people thought of the negative aspects associated with them. Citizens where generally unable to afford them. As time progressed and assembly lines  began, the overall price of the automobile decreased relatively quickly.


As a more people began  buying cars, the use a fossil fuels increase dramatically, which is the source of the Automobiles pollution. Cars emit gases such as carbon monoxide that accumulate in the air causing a variety of health problems. As an increasing amount of fossils are burned, the toxic emissions build up and lead to effects such as global warming and destroying the ozone layer, which protects people from the uV rays of the sun.


Second, the increase use of Automobiles has led to thousands of deaths annually in the us alone. Automobile  usage has become commonplace and people often forget that it is a machine capable of inflicting great damage and death. With the advancements made in automobile technology, high performance cars have become increasingly common and popular. Accidents involving either serious injury or death commonly occur due to  factors such as anger, weather come a lack of skills or carelessness. Young drivers are notorious for being involved in major accidents involving speed, alcohol, or both.


In short, it is true that Automobiles have provided people with added convenience by helping them save time and travel long distances, but the negative  aspects such as air pollution and traffic accidents far outweigh any   advantages. Without automobile manufacturers addressing the problems of air pollution and traffic accidents, the car will always be more of a disadvantage towards Society then anything else.

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Some famous athletes and entertainers earn millions of dollars every day. Do you think these people deserve such high salaries?


These days, there's a controversy concerning the millions of dollars that famous athletes and entertainers earn every year. Some people say that these celebrities are overpaid and do not deserve such high salaries for what they do.


On the other hand others believe that the celebrities deserve it. I agree with the latter opinion because people have the right to earn as much money as they can as long as they do it legally, and because celebrities are paid what the market for their skills bring. 


First of all, in free democratic societies, people have  the right to earn as much money as they are legally capable of. Some business people, doctors, and lawyers also earn millions of dollars every year. In  a democracy, people have the right to earn money in exchange for their skills.


When people have some talent and work hard to develop it, they have as much opportunity as anyone else to earn a large salary. Most celebrities and professional athletes worked hard developing themselves to get to where they are in their professions. As a members of a democratic Society, they have the freedom to do so. As long as  celebrities are making the salaries legally, there's no reason why they should not receive large salaries.


In addition, celebrities and athletes are receiving what the market will allow. This is one aspect of capitalism. Entertainment is a business. A popular  baseball team can bring millions, or even billions of dollars into an economy. The players are the reason for the economic money flow, so that makes them and their skills valuable commodities.


Furthermore, when a city has a successful baseball team, the entire City receives economic benefits due to the performance of the players. If  celebrities are athletes perform poorly over an extended period Of time, they lose value on the market and their salary will fall. Those are the rules of the open market.


The skills of celebrities are another marketable commodity. Some people think these skills are not worth it. However,  I believe that athletes and entertainers deserve these salaries because they have the right to earn as much money as  they want as long as it is legal and they have the right to receive what they are worth in a free market Society. 

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Would you prefer to live in a traditional house or in a modern apartment building?


People normally have a choice in regards to what kind of Housing they want to live in. Many people these days prefer to live in a modern style apartment building. On the other hand, some people still prefer to live in a traditional Style House. In my case, i would prefer to live in a modern apartment building because of convenience and safety.


First of all, in terms of convenience, apartment buildings are much better than houses . During my life, i've had the chance to live in both apartments and houses and  i find the apartments to be more convenient. For example, when I was young i lived in a house with my family and every weekend was spent doing some kind of chore around the house.


We had to cut the grass, plant flower beds, pick up sticks from trees and  sweep the sidewalk. However when you're living in an apartment building, all of the work is eliminated because there are people who are paid to keep up the grounds around an apartment building. A lot of chores at apartment buildings are taken care of by the Building Management. It allows the residents to have more free time to enjoy their lives.


In addition, living in an apartment building as much safer than living in a traditional house . Living in an apartment building is a little bit like living in a small town where most residents know the neighbors ;  thus a criminal is likely to be noticed and reported. For example when people see a stranger hanging around , they are suspicious and are bound to ask questions for inform the building staff about the stranger.


In that way, people are looking out for each other, in this causes a deterrent to crime. Moreover, modern apartment buildings are installed with other features that enhance the safety of the residents. They have  security  cameras, electronic locks, fire alarms and full-time security guards . however , houses are very insecure in our constantly in danger of being  burglarized, vandalized or burn down through  carelessness, for paranoid in individuals.


It would be nice to live in a big, wonderful house if they were more convenient and safer. However, in reality, modern apartment  buildings provide more convenience in that we do not have to work around the building.  they are also much safer from fire and Thieves. These two factors will make living more comfortable and enjoyable.

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People are not satisfied with what they have, they normally want something more or something different. Do you agree?


There's an old saying that  states [the grass is always greener on the other side of the fence] no matter what we have, we always want more. I agree that people are not satisfied with what they have because of two different factors : inner and outer factors. That is, part of human nature is to want more than we have, and the media and  advertisements we see daily constantly try to convince us that we want more.


One reason is that it is part of human Nature to want more.  one of the base biological characteristics for any animal is comfort. People are not different in that they try to accumulate more possessions in order to feel comfort,  security and convenience of having them. In modern Society, there are two more characteristics of humans that feed this urge : greed and boredom.


Greed drives people to have an over abundance of  possessions and  boredom  pushes people to accumulate material items just for something to do. The mix of the natural Drive for comfort and security with the human characteristic of greed and boredom causes people to want more because they will never be satisfied with what they have.


Another reason is that the media and advertising that we see everywhere try to convince us that we need more than what we have. We cannot get on the bus or subway, turn on the TV or open a newspaper without seeing advertisement for something that we really do not need.


We constantly hear and read that our lives will be so much easier and  more complete if we buy a certain product. Besides, all of our friends are buying it, so why don't we? At least that is the angle that advertisments use on people in order to get them to buy more,  and it works. After a long period Of time of hearing and seeing these messages, people are inclined to believe what the media and advertisements are telling them.


To sum up, people are usually never happy with what they have. We have  the natural human characteristic of greed and boredom in addition to a natural wish for comfort driving us to want more. There are also the media and advertising companies that spend millions of dollars a year convincing us that we need their products. wouldn't it be easier if we could simplify our lives and be happy with what we have without excess?

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A university plans to develop a new research Center in your country. Some people want a center for business research. Other people want a center for research in agriculture. Which of these do you want?


While  any research facility is likely to draw attention to the local region, a specific type of research may be more appropriate and beneficial.


While some believe that a business research Center  would be the best, others argue that a center for agricultural research would be more advantageous. I would prefer that a business research be developed to help develop local businesses and reduce overall unemployment.


First, a business research Center would ensure the competitiveness of a country. With increasingly global business, government needs to ensure their nation remains competitive. Agricultural is a Specialized business and very  localized since not all areas of a nation will be appropriate for farming.


To develop the economy of the nation, it is important that government develops other forms of businesses to ensure economic prosperity. Fields such as law, marketing, information technology,  and manufacturing  should be encouraged and fostered by governments to ensure local businesses develop allowing the government a larger stream of revenue, developing the nation further.


Next, a business research Center would reduce unemployment. Unemployment is a constant aspect of global Society that will likely never be completely eliminated. However a business research Center would go along way in creating jobs and helping people find employment. Fewer and fewer people  are needed for farming  since agricultural technology has developed. Farmers are able to use machines to harvest crops in a few days, something that may have taken dozens of work and weeks in the past.


This increase in efficiency has led to fewer jobs being available in farming. A business research Center allows people to explore other ways of earning a living . For example, an unemployed farm worker, having developed the strength and stamina needed to these Fields, may undergo retraining through a business research Center program designed to fill the need of construction workers.


Construction being a field that requires manual Dexterity, strength and stamina, would allow workers to find suitable employment.  thus, establishing the business research Center would be the best choice.


In short, given the changes in society, a business research Center would be a better choice than an agricultural research facility. a research Center would encourage a nation's competitiveness and allow businesses to both prosper and expand. It would also provide additional job opportunities, ensuring that unemployment is minimized.

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How to be a good traveler ?


Many people like to travel, meet different people, be in touch with other cultures, and increase their knowledge.

 When traveling, people like to feel safe and comfortable, and so a question comes: how can I be a good traveler? The answer is very simple, you just have to follow some basic steps. These steps decide the purpose of your trip, keep in mind the place you are visiting, and find out a guide and a map of the place you're  about to visit.


The first step you have to follow to be a good traveler is to decide the purpose of your trip. It is not the same to travel for holiday, with the family during vacations or with some friends then traveling to study or to work. When you decide the purpose of a trip, you know what you need to do and so you can plan your activities taking the best advantage of your time.


The second step is to keep in mind the place you are visiting. That includes  knowing the currency, the weather [to choose your clothes if the place is warmer cold], and the expenses that you will have [to know if you have to take money in cash, credit card or traveler checks]. You have to take your confirmation of any booking or reservation, some medicines, and you should have all your important documents ready i.e passport, visa in case you need it medical insurance card, etc.


and a third step is to find out a guide and a map of the place you are visiting. Try to identify where you are going to stay and the places you would like to visit in order to have some previous knowledge that'll allow you to enjoy more your stay.  also, this would prevent you from getting lost and you will take advantage of time having the possibility of visiting all those exciting places that you cannot miss.


It is really easy to follow the previous steps to assure a safe and comfortable trip. Of course there are many things you cannot prevent, but if you do these, at least you will have and advantage then those who do not consider these basic steps. And remember, when traveling open your eyes, give yourself the opportunity to admire everything, even those differences that are so valuable. Take many pictures to have the greatest moments with you forever, and be happy anytime, anywhere.

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Only people who earn a lot of money are successful . Do you agree?


One of the greatest influences of society is money. wealth has become a common measure of success. However, i strongly disagree that wealth is an accurate measure of success. There are many ways of evaluating success. two methods of evaluating someone success are by their accomplishments and whether they have contributed to society.


First, success and also be  measured by once accomplishment. Wealth is not always someone's primary go or cause of action. For example,  albert Einstein was brilliant physicist known throughout the world  for his theory of relativity. He is famous because of his theories and his developments in the field.


While working on the physics he was a patent clerk, a position that would never supply him with financial wealth. His example can be seen throughout the world. university professors and researchers would simply not exist if everyone was concerned with wealth. Success is not only measured by wealth, but in accomplishments, such as einstein's theories or new drugs developed through research.


Second, once success can be measured by whether they have contributed  to society. While people such as Bill Gates may donate millions to charities and foundations, but there are other people that donate their lives. Mother Teresa was a nun that  devoted her entire life to helping the poor in India. She won many awards for her struggle  in trying to help the poor, but never kept any of the money awarded for her own personal gain.


Her example is also followed by many people in Social Services.   working for the government, especially  in Social Services, will never make anyone millions. However, many University graduates willingly  dedicate their  careers to helping children. The feelings of abuse children or those getting out of helpless situations are a contribution that should never be ignored. Whether someone earns a million dollars a year or more is a very short-sided method of evaluating success.


In short, while rich people are often judged as being successful, many of them shouldn't be considered so. I think a more appropriate method of evaluating success is by one's accomplishment or contributions to society.

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 high schools should allow students to study the courses that students want to study. Do you agree?

Recently, there have been some  debates  that student  should study the same subjects as  their classmates, regardless of their personal interest . I disagree with this line of thinking. I think  high schools should allow students to study subjects of their choice because the students will be more motivated and study and better prepared to go to university .


If students are able to choose what classes  they would like to take, they will probably be more motivated to study. Normally, high schools have a set curriculum for their students to follow. For example, if some students are interested in art,  such as painting , drawing  and sculpture, but are force to study science and mathematics, they will probably be less interested in school.


On the other hand, if the students are allowed to study as many art classes as they would like, they will be more excited about attending class, which pushes them to study harder. A base of general knowledge is necessary, but the bulk of the classes should be concerned with the students own interests .


In addition, when students are allowed to study the subjects they want to study in high school, they will be better prepared for their chosen major in university . Let's use the same example of the students interested in art. Although studying science and math is necessary for general education, the students should be allowed to take art courses that they want to study  in high school.


As a result, they will be better prepared for  university. If the students study drawing and painting in high school, they will be at a more advanced level by the time they enter university. If this is so , the students will be able to learn at more advanced level and have the chance to develop their skills even more. If students study subjects that they have little interest in, they will be less prepared to study the courses associated with they're major.

 to sum up, i believe it is better to give students  some freedom in deciding what to study when they are in high school . A basic knowledge of all subjects is very useful, but there are some benefits to letting them study what they want. If they make their own choices, students may be more motivated to study, and they will be better prepared for their major in university.

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Some people like doing work by hand. Others prefer using machines. Which do you prefer?


There seems to be two ways of doing work. These days, many people like to work using machines , but some people still prefer to do things by hand . As for me , i believe that using machine is better because machines help me get things done more quickly and they also save Me from the fatigue of doing things my hand.


One advantage of using machines is that machines help me  save a lot of time. Around the house there are always a lot of things to do. If we use machines, we can get them done quickly so that we can move on to other things. For example, let's think about all the work the needs to be done in the kitchen, like cooking and doing the dishes.


If I prepare meals by hand,  it can take a a long time to chop and cut up the food by hand. However, with appliances, like a food processor, the work can be done in minutes. And afterwards when there is a pile of dirty dishes in the sink, it will be faster to use a dishwasher. All we have to do is rinse the dishes, put them in the dishwasher, and the Machine will clean them while we are in the living room enjoying time with our family .


Another important advantage of using machines that machines enable me to save effort. Seeing as there are  chores to do every day, there's never really a chance to rest up. For example, before washing machines, people had to spend several hours heating water, scrubbing clothes, rinsing the clothes and hanging them up.


That really made people's bodies tired. However , with a washing machine, we just put the clothes and soap in the machine and turn it on. We can even use the drying cycle, so there's no need to hang them. Imagine cutting the lawn on your knees with clippers, cutting all the blades of grass individually. With a lawn mower, the job can be done without fatigue, and we will still have energy for something else.


In conclusion, in some cases, during work by hand may provide additional accuracy and better results, but for chores people do around the house, machines are a definite advantage. The machines save us a lot of time and fatigue, which leaves us with more chances to enjoy our free time.

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Teenagers have jobs while they are still  students. Do you think this is a good idea?


Parents, educators, and teenagers often debate whether or not it is good for teenagers to have jobs while they're still  high school students.


One side of the fence argues against teenagers having jobs and the other side argues in favor of them being able to work if they want to. From my perspective, i do not think it is a good idea for teenagers to work while they are still in school because they should use that time for studying and developing social skills.


Overwhelmingly, the number  one thing for students to focus on before their University years is  is studying. That does not mean studying only during official class hours. A lot of time is needed outside of school to  complete homework and other academic projects. Studying and making good grades lay the groundwork for the rest of their lives , and this. period can decide whether students are going to be successful in adult life or not.


If they have a job while in high school, that means a certain amount of their attention is taken away from  studying. Working also causes fatigue, so even when they are not at work, they still suffer from their studies because of the job. Moreover, it is the obligation of parents to supply their children with everything they need during the stage of life. 


Furthermore, the teenage years are an important time in a young life because at this time they are also developing social skills, another important aspect of adult life. Having a job will take away time needed for extra curricular activities. It is during their after school hours that students get together with friends and develop their much needed social skills through playing team sports, participating in clubs or just talking to one another.


if they are too busy working, they may have no opportunity to participate in the other activities that are designed to round out a student's social and academic education. Many students if they're working, will probably quit playing team sports and participating in clubs.


 in conclusion, i believe that it is imperative that students spend their free time during their teenage years , especially while in high school, pursuing the goals that will enable them to become well rounded adults.  these goals are primarily studying and developing social skills. Teenagers will one day run the country and it is important that they are well educated and well adjusted.

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If you could go back to some time and place in the past, when and where would you go? Why?


If I were afforded the opportunity to go back to a specific time in place in the past, i would venture back to Ancient Greece.


During the fifth century bC, the Greeks were in the process of developing and reforming a wide range of cultural, socio, and scientific  pursuits which still have a significant impact on the world today.


In the Arts, Greece excelled in many Fields,  particularly dramatic literature. The works of sophocles,  euripides and  aristophaneous have had a tremendous influence not only on Western literature, but also western thought in general. The works of these playwrights are still performed on stages around the world today. However it would be a rare and exciting opportunity to see these plays performed for the first time.


The ancient Greeks also excelled in the social Sciences. Perhaps their greatest contribution in this area came in the form of democracy. The Greek words demo and crazy mean people and rule respectively. Today, any of the world's great Nations have adopted, and to a certain  extent, modified the ancient Greek system. Yet, it's birth and early maturation. all took place in ancient Greece.


Academic subjects such as philosophy, astronomy, physics and biology also received a great deal of attention in the ancient Greek world. The philosophical writings of Heraclitus, Plato, and Aristotle have had a profound influence on Western scholarship for well over 2000 years. The mathematical theory of pythagoras and Euclid, combined with theories from other great ancient civilizations, provided and foundation upon which later mathematics such as newton and Einstein based their work.


The world of the ancient Greeks would most certainly be an exciting and stimulating place to go back to. Politics, drama, physics, and a number of other subjects were still in their infancy, and all were being fiercely debated and examined. It would undoubtedly  and enriching experience to observe and take part in such a fascinating civilization.

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Some people prefer to live in places that have the same weather all year long. Others like to live in areas where the weather changes several times a year. Which do you prefer?


One of the factors that make the different regions of the world  interesting is in the variety of the weather. There are some people who prefer to live in a place that has the same weather all  year  long, with little variation. However, there are other people that prefer to live where the weather changes several times a year.


Personally, i prefer a multi-seasonal location because i enjoy different kinds of activities and witness the changing seasons. For people who live in a region that has a constant year round climate, there's very little variation in the activities that they are able to indulge in simply because of the weather does not support a variety.


For example, if people live where there is perpetual summer, they only are able to do activities that require hot weather, like water skiing or sailing. However , people like me would get bored quickly because they also want to enjoy winter activities such as skiing. I suppose for people who grew up in the place  with only one season, they would not really miss the  activities that can be done in other seasons,  but in my case I would probably get bored with the constancy of one season because there would be no variations to look forward to.


Living in various climates allows me to enjoy the beauty of changing seasons. Knowing exactly what the weather is going to be like on any given day would also probably get very dull after a while. Imagine waking up every morning knowing that when you go outside, you will see that the leaves are green and it'll be hot.


There would be little to look forward to in regards to the natural environment throughout the year. In my case, i look forward to the vibrant colors of the changing leaves when autumn is in progress, the first snowfall of the winter and the First budding leaves on the trees in the spring. If I lived in a region where these things do not happen, i would lose the pleasure of anticipating these events as well as the pleasure of actually seeing these natural processes take place.


To sum up, though I suppose it is a matter of what you are used to, i do not think i would like to live in a place that has only one season all year long. I would miss doing that activities that are suited to Different Seasons and I think it would be a discouragement not to have the chance to witness the changing of the season. But please do not get me wrong, i love my country just the way she is. I could go visit those countries in those times, i just could not feel good not to smell the fragrance of our  soil here.

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Sunday, March 7, 2021

Glossary of Experiment, Banking

 

Alias: When the estimate of an effect also includes the influence of one or more other effects (usually high order interactions) the effects are said to be aliased (see confounding). For example, if the estimate of effect D in a four factor experiment actually estimates (D + ABC), then the main effect D is aliased with the 3-way interaction ABC. Note: This causes no difficulty when the higher order interaction is either non-existent or insignificant.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA): A mathematical process for separating the variability of a group of observations into assignable causes and setting up various significance tests.

Balanced design: An experimental design where all cells (i.e. treatment combinations) have the same number of observations.

Blocking: A schedule for conducting treatment combinations in an experimental study such that any effects on the experimental results due to a known change in raw materials, operators, machines, etc., become concentrated in the levels of the blocking variable. Note: the reason for blocking is to isolate a systematic effect and prevent it from obscuring the main effects. Blocking is achieved by restricting randomization.

Center Points: Points at the center value of all factor ranges.

Coding Factor Levels: Transforming the scale of measurement for a factor so that the high value becomes +1 and the low value becomes -1 (see scaling). After coding all factors in a 2-level full factorial experiment, the design matrix has all orthogonal columns. Coding is a simple linear transformation of the original measurement scale. If the "high" value is Xh and the "low" value is XL (in the original scale), then the scaling transformation takes any original X value and converts it to (X − a)/b, where a = (Xh + XL)/2 and b = (Xh−XL)/2. To go back to the original measurement scale, just take the coded value and multiply it by b and add a or, X = b × (coded value) + a. As an example, if the factor is temperature and the high setting is 65°C and the low setting is 55°C, then a = (65 + 55)/2 = 60 and b = (65 − 55)/2 = 5. The center point (where the coded value is 0) has a temperature of 5(0) + 60 = 60°C.

Comparative design: A design that allows the (typically mean-unbiased) estimation of the difference in factor effects, especially for the difference in treatment effects. The estimation of differences between treatment effects can be made with greater reliability than the estimation of absolute treatment effects.

Confounding: A confounding design is one where some treatment effects (main or interactions) are estimated by the same linear combination of the experimental observations as some blocking effects. In this case, the treatment effect and the blocking effect are said to be confounded. Confounding is also used as a general term to indicate that the value of a main effect estimate comes from both the main effect itself and also contamination or bias from higher order interactions. Note: Confounding designs naturally arise when full factorial designs have to be run in blocks and the block size is smaller than the number of different treatment combinations. They also occur whenever a fractional factorial design is chosen instead of a full factorial design.

Control group: a set of experimental units to which incidental treatments are applied but not main treatments. For example, in applying a herbicide as one treatment, plots receiving that treatment might be driven over by a machine applying the herbicide but treatments not receiving the herbicide would not normally be driven over. The machine traffic is an incidental treatment. If there was a concern that the machine traffic might have an effect on the variable being measured (e.g. death of strawberry plants), then a control treatment would receive the machine traffic but no herbicide. Control groups are a way of eliminating the possibility of incidental treatments being the cause of measured effects. The incidental treatments are controlled for. Compare treatment groups. A treatment that is only the absence of the manipulation being studied is simply one of the treatments and not a control, though it is now common to refer to a non-manipulated treatment as a control.

Crossed factors: See factors below.

Design: A set of experimental runs which allows you to fit a particular model and estimate your desired effects.

Design matrix: A matrix description of an experiment that is useful for constructing and analyzing experiments.

Design of Experiments: A systematic, rigorous approach to engineering problem-solving that applies principles and techniques at the data collection stage so as to ensure the generation of valid, defensible, and supportable engineering conclusions [1]

Design Point: A single combination of settings for the independent variables of an experiment. A Design of Experiments will result in a set of design points, and each design point is designed to be executed one or more times, with the number of iterations based on the required statistical significance for the experiment.

Effect (of a factor): How changing the settings of a factor changes the response. The effect of a single factor is also called a main effect. A treatment effect may be assumed to be the same for each experimental unit, by the assumption of treatment-unit additivity; more generally, the treatment effect may be the average effect. Other effects may be block effects. (For a factor A with two levels, scaled so that low = -1 and high = +1, the effect of A has a mean-unbiased estimator that is evaluated by subtracting the average observed response when A is -1 from the average observed response when A = +1 and dividing the result by 2; division by 2 is needed because the -1 level is 2 scaled units away from the +1 level.)

Error: Unexplained variation in a collection of observations. See Errors and residuals in statistics. Note: experimental designs typically require understanding of both random error and lack of fit error.

Experimental unit: The entity to which a specific treatment combination is applied. For example, an experimental unit can be a

PC board

silicon wafer

tray of components simultaneously treated

individual agricultural plants

plot of land

automotive transmissions

etc.

Factors: Process inputs that an investigator manipulates to cause a corresponding change in the output. Some factors cannot be controlled by the experimenter but may affect the responses. These uncontrolled factors should be measured and used in the data analysis, if their effect is significant. Note: The inputs can be discrete or continuous.

Crossed factors: Two factors are crossed if every level of one occurs with every level of the other in the experiment.

Nested factors: A factor "A" is nested within another factor "B" if the levels or values of "A" are different for every level or value of "B". Note: Nested factors or effects have a hierarchical relationship.

Fixed effect: An effect associated with an input variable that has a limited number of levels or in which only a limited number of levels are of interest to the experimenter.

Interaction: Occurs when the effect of one factor on a response depends on the level of another factor(s).

Lack of fit error: Error that occurs when the analysis omits one or more important terms or factors from the process model. Note: Including replication in a designed experiment allows separation of experimental error into its components: lack of fit and random (pure) error.

Model: Mathematical relationship which relates changes in a given response to changes in one or more factors.

Nested Factors: See factors above.

Orthogonality: Two vectors of the same length are orthogonal if the sum of the products of their corresponding elements is 0. Note: An experimental design is orthogonal if the effects of any factor balance out (sum to zero) across the effects of the other factors.

Paradigm: a model created given the basic design, the hypothesis and the particular conditions for the experiment.

Random effect: An effect associated with input variables chosen at random from a population having a large or infinite number of possible values.

Random error: Error that occurs due to natural variation in the process. Note: Random error is typically assumed to be normally distributed with zero mean and a constant variance. Note: Random error is also called experimental error.

Randomization: A schedule for allocating treatment material and for conducting treatment combinations in a designed experiment such that the conditions in one run neither depend on the conditions of the previous run nor predict the conditions in the subsequent runs. Note: The importance of randomization cannot be over stressed. Randomization is necessary for conclusions drawn from the experiment to be correct, unambiguous and defensible.

Regression discontinuity design: A design in which assignment to a treatment is determined at least partly by the value of an observed covariate lying on either side of a fixed threshold.

Replication: Performing the same treatment combination more than once. Note: Including replication allows an estimate of the random error independent of any lack of fit error.

Resolution: In fractional factorial designs, "resolution" describes the degree to which the estimated main-effects are aliased (or confounded) with estimated higher-order interactions (2-level interactions, 3-level interactions, etc.). In general, the resolution of a design is one more than the smallest order interaction which is aliased with some main effect. If some main effects are confounded with some 2-level interactions, the resolution is 3. Note: Full factorial designs have no confounding and are said to have resolution "infinity". For most practical purposes, a resolution 5 design is excellent and a resolution 4 design may be adequate. Resolution 3 designs are useful as economical screening designs.

Response(s): The output(s) of a process. Sometimes called dependent variable(s).

Response surface: A designed experiment that models the quantitative response, especially for the short-term goal of improving a process and the longer-term goal of finding optimum factor-values. Traditionally, response-surfaces have been modeled with quadratic-polynomials, whose estimation requires that every factor have three levels.

Rotatability: A design is rotatable if the variance of the predicted response at any point x depends only on the distance of x from the design center point. A design with this property can be rotated around its center point without changing the prediction variance at x. Note: Rotatability is a desirable property for response surface designs (i.e. quadratic model designs).

Scaling factor levels: Transforming factor levels so that the high value becomes +1 and the low value becomes -1.

Screening design: A designed experiment that identifies which of many factors have a significant effect on the response. Note: Typically screening designs have more than 5 factors.

Test plan: a written document that gives a specific listing of the test procedures and sequence to be followed.

Treatment: A treatment is a specific combination of factor levels whose effect is to be compared with other treatments.

Treatment combination: The combination of the settings of several factors in a given experimental trial. Also known as a run.

Treatment group: see Control group

Variance components: Partitioning of the overall variation into assignable components.



AC capacitor

A capacitor essentially designed for operation with alternating voltage.[a]

AC conversion factor

For AC conversion, the ratio of the fundamental output power to the fundamental input power.

AC converter

A converter for AC conversion.

AC filter

A filter on the AC side of a converter, designed to reduce the circulation of harmonic currents in the associated system.

AC voltage converter

An AC converter for changing the voltage.

(electronic) AC (power) conversion

Electronic conversion from AC to AC

(electronic) AC/DC (power) conversion

Electronic conversion from AC to DC or vice versa.

AC/DC converter

An electronic converter for rectification or inversion or both.

angle of overlap

The commutation interval expressed in angular measure.

(valve) arm

A part of the circuit of an power converter or switch bounded by any two AC or DC terminals and including one or more simultaneously conducting electronic valve devices connected together and other components if any.

asymmetrical phase control

Phase control with different delay angles in the principal arms of a converter connection or commutating group.

automatic switching on

The property of an equipment having a forced characteristic such that the equipment is switched on automatically.

automatic switching off

The property of an equipment having a forced characteristic such that the equipment is switched off automatically.

auto-sequential commutation

A method of capacitor commutation where the next principal arm to conduct in sequence when turned on connects the capacitor supplying the commutating voltage to the foregoing principal arm.

auxiliary arm

Any valve arm other than a principal arm.[b]

B Edit

basic converter connection

The electrical arrangement of principal arms in a converter.

boost converter

step-up converter

A direct DC converter providing an output voltage which is higher than the input voltage.

boost and buck connection

A series connection of two or more converter connections the direct voltages of which may be added or subtracted depending on the control of the individual connections.

breakdown (of an electronic valve device or of a valve arm)

A failure that permanently deprives an electronic valve device or a valve arm of its property to block voltage.

breakthrough

A failure by which a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices loses its ability to block voltage during the forward blocking interval.

bridge connection

A double-way connection of pairs of arms such that the center terminals are the phase terminals of the AC circuit, and that the outer terminals of like polarity are connected together and are the DC terminals.

buck converter

step-down converter

A direct DC converter providing an output voltage which is lower than the input voltage.

by-pass arm

An auxiliary arm providing a conductive path which allows the current to circulate without an interchange of power between source and load.

C Edit

capacitor commutation

A method of self-commutation in which the commutating voltage is supplied by capacitors included in the commutation circuit.

capacitor element (or element)

An indivisible part of a capacitor consisting of two electrodes separated by a dielectric.

capacitor losses

The active power consumed by a capacitor.[c][d]

capacitor unit (or unit)

An assembly of one or more capacitor elements in the same container with terminals brought out.

capacitor bank

An assembly of two or more capacitor units, electrically connected to each other.

capacitor

A general term used when it is not necessary to state whether reference is made to an element, a unit or a capacitor bank.

capacitor equipment

An assembly of capacitor units and their accessories intended for connection to a network.

circuit angle

In a rectifier connection, the phase angle between the peak of the line to neutral voltage on the AC line side and the simultaneous or next peak of the unsmoothed direct voltage at zero current delay angle.

circuit crest working off-state voltage

The highest instantaneous value of the off-state voltage developed across a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices, excluding all repetitive and non-repetitive transients.

circuit crest working reverse voltage

The highest instantaneous value of the reverse voltage developed across a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices, excluding all repetitive and non-repetitive transient voltages.

circuit non-repetitive peak off-state voltage

The highest instantaneous value of any non-repetitive transient off-state voltage developed across a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices.

circuit non-repetitive peak reverse voltage

The highest instantaneous value of any non-repetitive transient reverse voltage developed across a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices.

circuit repetitive peak off-state voltage

The highest instantaneous value of the off-state voltage developed across a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices, including all repetitive transient voltages but excluding all non-repetitive transient voltages.

circuit repetitive peak reverse voltage

The highest instantaneous value of a reverse voltage developed across a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices, including all repetitive transient voltages but excluding all non-repetitive transient voltages.

circuit reverse blocking interval

The interval during which a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices is in the reverse blocking state.

circuit off-state interval

The interval during which a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices is in the off state.

characteristic (curve) (of a converter)

A curve showing the relationship between the values of the output voltage and the values of the output current.

commutating voltage

The voltage which causes the current to commutate.

commutation

In an power converter the transfer of current from one conducting arm to the next to conduct in sequence, without interruption of the current, both arms conducting simultaneously during a finite time interval.

commutation circuit

The circuit consisting of the commutating arms and the source providing the commutating voltage.

commutating group

A group of principal arms which commutate cyclically among themselves without intermediate commutation of the current to other principal arms.

commutation capacitor

A capacitor included in the commutation circuit to supply commutating voltage.

commutation inductance

The resulting inductance in the commutation circuit.

commutation interval

The time interval in which commutating arms are carrying principal current simultaneously.

commutation failure

A failure to commutate the current from a conducting arm to the succeeding arm.

commutation notch

A periodic voltage transient that may appear in the AC side voltage of a line or machine commutated converter due to the commutation.

commutation number

The number of commutations from one principal arm to another during one elementary period in each commutating group.

commutation reactor

A reactor included in the commutation circuit to increase the commutation inductance.

composite characteristic

A characteristic consisting of parts of the stabilized voltage and stabilized current characteristics.

conducting direction (of an electronic valve device or of a valve arm)

The direction in which an electronic valve device or a valve arm is capable of conducting current.

conduction interval (of a valve arm)

That part of an elementary period in which the valve arm conducts.

conduction ratio

The ratio of the conduction interval to the sum of the conduction interval and the idle interval.

conduction through

In inverter operation, the situation that a valve arm continues conduction at the end of the normal conduction interval or at the end of the hold-off interval.

(electronic) (power) conversion

Change of one or more of the characteristics of an electric power system essentially without appreciable loss of power by means of electronic valve devices.[e]

(electronic) (power) converter

An operative unit for electronic power conversion, comprising one or more electronic valve devices, transformers and filters if necessary and auxiliaries if any.[f]

converter connection

The electrical arrangement of valve arms and other components essential for the function of the main power circuit of a converter.

converter section of a double converter

That part of a double converter in which the main direct current when viewed from the DC terminals always flows in the same direction.

controllable valve device

A valve device the current path of which is bistably controlled in its conducting direction.

constant current power supply

A power supply that stabilizes output current with respect to changes of influence quantities.

constant voltage power supply

A power supply that stabilizes output voltage with respect to changes of influence quantities.

constant voltage or constant current power supply

A stabilized power supply that operates as a constant voltage power supply or constant current power supply depending on load conditions.

constant voltage to constant current crossover

The behavior of a stabilized power supply that automatically converts the mode of operation from voltage stabilization to current stabilization when the output current reaches a preset value, and vice versa.

continuous flow (of direct current)

A flow of direct current which is not periodically interrupted.

conversion factor (in general)

The ratio of the fundamental output power or DC output power to the fundamental input power or DC input power.

container temperature rise (△θcase) (capacitor)

The difference between the temperature of the hottest point of the container and the temperature of the cooling air.

controlled ideal no-load direct voltage

The theoretical no-load direct voltage of an AC/DC converter corresponding to a specified trigger delay angle assuming no threshold voltages of electronic valve devices and no voltage rise at small loads.

controlled conventional no-load direct voltage

The mean value of the direct voltage corresponding to a specified trigger delay angle which would be obtained by extrapolating the direct voltage/current characteristic from the region of continuous flow of direct current to zero current.

conventional no-load direct voltage

The mean value of the direct voltage which would be obtained by extrapolating the direct voltage/current characteristic. from the region of continuous flow of direct current to zero current at zero trigger delay angle, i.e. without phase control.

cooling-air temperature (θamb) (capacitor)

The temperature of the cooling air measured at the hottest position in the bank, under steady-state conditions, midway between two units. If only one unit is involved, it is the temperature measured at a point approximately 0-1 m away from the capacitor container and at two-thirds of the height from its base.

crossover area

With stabilized power supplies, the range of values of the output quantities within which a change of mode of operation occurs, e.g. from constant voltage to constant current.[g][h]

crossover point

With stabilized power supplies a point given by the intersection of the lines representing the nominal values of the two stabilized output quantities, usually the centre of the crossover area.

current delay angle

The time expressed in angular measure by which the starting instant of current conduction is delayed by phase control.

current pulse width (τ) (capacitor)

Wave Forms


1.A. — A Commutative Diagram.


1.B. — Commutating Circuit Example


2. — Surge Wave Form

{\textstyle f_{p}={\frac {1}{t_{p}}}\qquad \tau =\pi {\sqrt {LC}}}{\textstyle f_{p}={\frac {1}{t_{p}}}\qquad \tau =\pi {\sqrt {LC}}}


τ = capacitor current pulse width

tp = system pulse duration

fp = system pulse frequency

Un = peak recurrent voltage

i = peak current

Fig. 1. Wave Forms

The time of current flow during the charging or discharging from one voltage value to another of the capacitor.[i]

current source inverter

current fed inverter

A current stiff inverter.

current stiff AC/DC converter

An electronic AC/DC converter having an essentially smooth current on the DC side provided e.g. by means to reduce the harmonic currents.

cycloconverter

A direct frequency converter.[j][k]

D Edit

DC capacitor

A capacitor essentially designed for operation with direct voltage.[l]

DC converter

A converter for DC conversion.

DC conversion factor

for DC conversion, the ratio of the DC power value on the load side to that on the source side.

(electronic) DC (power) conversion

Electronic conversion from DC to DC

DC filter

A filter on the DC side of a converter, designed to reduce the ripple in the associated system.

DC form factor

The ratio of the rms value to the mean value averaged over a full period of a periodically varying quantity having a non zero DC component.

DC power

The product of the direct voltage and the direct current (mean values).

DC ripple factor

The ratio of half the difference between the maximum and minimum value of a pulsating direct current to the mean, value of this current.[m]

direct AC/DC converter

An electronic AC/DC converter without a DC or AC link.

direct AC converter

An AC converter without a DC link.

direct (power) conversion

Electronic conversion without a DC or AC link.

direct DC converter

DC chopper

A DC converter without an AC link.

direct commutation

A commutation between two principal arms without transfer through any auxiliary arms.

direct inverter

An inverter without a DC link.

direct rectifier

A rectifier without a DC or AC link.

direct voltage regulation

The difference between the conventional no-load direct voltage and the direct voltage at load at the same trigger delay angle excluding the correcting effect of stabilizing means if any.

double converter

A current stiff reversible AC/DC converter with direct current in both directions.

double-way connection (of a converter)

A converter connection such that the current through each of the phase terminals of the AC circuit is bidirectional.

duty cycle (capacitor)

1. continuous duty; Operation time such that a capacitor is at thermal equilibrium for most of the time.

2. intermittent duty ; Discontinuous working or operation with variable loads which should be described in terms of ON/OFF or HIGH/LOW periods with their durations.

E Edit

electronic AC (power) switch

An electronic power switch capable of switching alternating current.

electronic AC power controller

A unit which is able to operate as a controllable direct AC voltage converter as well as an electronic AC switch.

electronic DC (power) switch

An electronic power switch capable of switching direct current.

electronic device

A device the function of which is based on charge carriers moving through a semiconductor, a high vacuum or a gas discharge.

elementary frequency

The reciprocal of the elementary period.

elementary period

The duration of one cycle of the phenomena that are periodically repeated.

electronic power filter

active power filter

A converter for filtering.

electronic (power) switching

Switching an electric power circuit by means of electronic valve devices.

electronic (power) switch

An operative unit for electronic power switching comprising at least one controllable valve device.

electronic valve device

An indivisible electronic device for electronic power conversion or electronic power switching, comprising a single non-controllable or bistably controlled unidirectionally conducting current path.[n][o]

equivalent series resistance of a capacitor

An effective resistance which, if connected in series with an ideal capacitor of capacitance value equal to that of the capacitor in question, would have a power loss equal to the active power dissipated in that capacitor underspecified operating conditions.

external commutation

A commutation where the commutating voltage is supplied by a source outside the converter or electronic switch.

external quenching

A method of quenching in which the quenching results from causes external to the electronic valve device.

F Edit

false firing

The firing of a latching valve device or an arm consisting of such devices at an incorrect instant.

flyback converter

A DC converter where the energy is transferred from the source side to the load side during the idle interval(s) of the controllable principal arm(s) after being stored in an inductance.

firing

The establishment of current in the conducting direction in a latching valve device or an arm consisting of such devices.

firing failure

A failure to achieve conduction in a latching valve device or an arm consisting of such devices during the conduction interval.

forward breakdown

A failure that permanently deprives a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices of its property to block forward voltage.

forward converter

A DC converter where the energy is transferred from the source side to the load side during the conduction interval(s) of the controllable principal arm(s).

four-quadrant converter

An AC/DC or DC converter with two directions of DC power flow, associated with two directions of direct voltage and two directions of direct current.

free-wheeling arm

A by-pass arm containing only non-controllable valve devices.

frequency converter

An AC converter for changing the frequency.[p]

forced characteristic (of a line commutated converter)

A characteristic obtained by additional means, e.g. stabilization, with specified variation limits of influence quantities.

fully controllable connection

A uniform connection with all principal arms controllable.

fundamental factor

The ratio of the rms value of the fundamental component to the rms value of the alternating quantity.

fundamental power

The active power determined by the fundamental components of voltage and current.

H Edit

half-controllable connection

A non-uniform connection with half the number of principal arms controllable.

harmonic content

The quantity obtained by subtracting from an alternating quantity its fundamental component.

(total) harmonic factor

The ratio of the rms value of the harmonic content of an alternating quantity to the r.m.s. value of the quantity.

high vacuum valve device

An electronic valve device in which the degree of vacuum is so high that the effects of ionization are negligible.

hold-off interval

The interval between the instant when the on-state current of a latching valve device has decreased to zero and the instant when the same valve device is subjected to reapplied off-state voltage.

I Edit

indirect AC converter

An AC converter with a DC link.

indirect AC/DC converter

An electronic AC/DC converter with a DC or AC link.

indirect commutation

A series of commutations from one principal arm to another or back to the original one by successive commutations via one or more auxiliary arms.

indirect (power) conversion

Electronic conversion with one or more DC or AC link(s).

indirect current link AC converter

An AC converter with a current stiff DC link .

indirect DC converter

A DC converter with an AC link.

indirect inverter

An inverter with a DC link.

indirect rectifier

A rectifier with a DC or AC link.

indirect voltage link AC converter

An AC converter with a voltage stiff DC link.

inductive direct voltage regulation

The direct voltage regulation due to the commutation inductance(s).

influence quantity

In the field of power electronics any quantity generally external to a power supply which may affect its performance.

inherent delay angle

The current delay angle occurring, even without phase control, caused by multiple overlap.[q]

inherent direct voltage regulation

The direct voltage regulation excluding the effect of the AC system impedance.

intermittent flow (of direct current)

A flow of direct current which is periodically interrupted.

internal discharge device

A device incorporated in the capacitor connecting the terminals of the unit, capable of reducing the residual voltage effectively to zero after the capacitor has been disconnected from the supply.

internal (element) fuse

A device incorporated in the capacitor which disconnects an element or a group of elements in the event of breakdown.

insulation voltage (Ui)

The RMS rated value of the insulation voltage of capacitive elements and terminals to case or earth. If not specified, the RMS value of the insulating voltage is equivalent to the rated voltage divided by a square root of 2.

interphase transformer

An electromagnetic device enabling the operation in parallel of two or more phase displaced commutating groups through inductive coupling between the windings placed, on the same core.

inversion factor

For inversion, the ratio of the fundamental output power to the DC power.

ideal no-load direct voltage

The theoretical no-load direct voltage of an AC/DC converter assuming no reduction by phase control, no threshold voltages of electronic valve devices, and no voltage rise at small loads.

idle interval (of a valve arm)

That part of an elementary period in which the valve arm does not conduct.

ionic valve device

filled valve device

An electronic valve device in which the effects of the ionization of a gas play an important role.

(electronic) (power) inversion

Electronic conversion from DC to AC

inverter

AC/DC converter for inversion.[r]

J Edit

jumping characteristic

The property of an equipment to jump from one characteristic to another, e.g. by changing the predetermined value of a stabilizing device.

L Edit

latching valve device

A controllable valve device which latches when it is turned on, that means it remains in the on state when the trigger signal has ended.[s][t][u]

line commutation

An external commutation where the commutating voltage is supplied by the line.

load commutation

An external commutation where the commutating voltage is taken from a load other than the line.

lowest operating temperature (θmin) (capacitor)

The lowest temperature at which the capacitormay be energized.

M Edit

machine commutation

External commutation where the commutating voltage is supplied by a rotating machine.

maximum current (Imax) (capacitor)

The maximum RMS current for continuous operation.

maximum loss power (Pmax) (capacitor)

The maximum loss power with which the capacitor may be loaded at the maximum case temperature.

maximum operating temperature (θmax) (capacitor)

The highest temperature of the case at which capacitor may be operated.

maximum peak current (i) (capacitor)

The maximum current amplitude which occurs instantaneously during continuous operation.

maximum surge current (is) (capacitor)

The admissible peak current induced by a switching or any other disturbance of the system which is allowed for a limited number of times.

metal-foil capacitor (non self-healing)

A capacitor in which the electrodes usually consist of metal foils separated by a dielectric, in the event of breakdown of the dielectric, the capacitor does not restore itself.

model capacitor

A smaller unit which simulates a complete unit or element in an electrical test, without reducing the severity of the electrical, thermal or mechanical conditions.[v]

multi-connected converter

A converter consisting of two or more converter units parallel connected or series connected or both, each of which is an operative converter of its own.

multiple connection (of commutating groups)

A connection in which two or more identical commutating groups which do not commutate simultaneously are connected in such a way that their direct currents add.

multicycle control

The process of varying the ratio of the number of cycles which include current conduction to the number of cycles in which no current conduction occurs.

multicycle control factor

The ratio between the number of conducting cycles and the sum of conducting and non-conducting cycles in the case of multicycle control.

N Edit

natural characteristic (of a line commutated converter)

A characteristic determined only by the basic parts of the equipment, e.g. transformer and valve device assembly.

non-conducting direction (of an electronic valve device or of a valve arm)

The reverse of the conducting direction.

non-controllable connection

A uniform connection with all principal arms non-controllable.

non-controllable valve device

rectifier diode

A reverse blocking valve device the current path of which conducts in its conducting direction without any control signal being applied.

non-recurrent surge voltage (Us) (capacitor)

A peak voltage induced by a switching or any other disturbance of the system which is allowed for a limited number of times and for durations shorter than the basic period.

non-reverse blocking valve device

A controllable valve device which is not capable of blocking any voltage of more than several volts in its non-conducting direction.[w]

non-uniform connection

A connection with both controllable and non-controllable principal arms.

O Edit

off state

forward blocking state

The non-conducting state of a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices when load current in the conducting direction is not allowed to flow due to the absence of a turn-on signal.

on state

conducting state

The condition when conducting current flows through an electronic valve device or an arm.

one-quadrant converter

An AC/DC or DC converter with one possible direction of DC power flow.

operating temperature (capacitor)

The temperature of the hottest point on the case of the capacitor in thermal equilibrium.

overpressure disconnector

A disconnecting device designed to interrupt the current path in the case of abnormal increase of the internal pressure.

P Edit

pair of antiparallel arms

Two valve arms in parallel with opposite conducting directions.

pair of arms

Two series connected valve arms with the same conducting direction.

parallel operation

A mode of operation of stabilized power supplies in which all similar output terminals are connected together and arranged so that the total load is shared by all the supplies.

phase control factor

In the case of phase control, the ratio of the voltage at prevailing current delay angle to the voltage at zero current delay angle, all voltage drops being assumed to be zero.

phase converter

An AC converter for changing the number of phases.

phase control

The process of varying the instant within the cycle at which current conduction in an electronic valve device or a valve arm begins.

power electronics

The field of electronics which deals with the conversion or switching of electric power with or without control of that power.

principal arm

A valve arm involved in the major transfer of power from one side of the converter or electronic switch to the other.[x]

pulse control

The process of varying the starting or termination instants or both of a repeated current conduction in a principal arm.

pulse control factor

The conduction ratio of a principal arm in the case of pulse duration control, assuming the commutation inductance to be zero.

pulse frequency (fp) (capacitor)

The repetition rate of periodic current pulses.

pulse frequency control

Pulse control at variable frequency and fixed pulse duration.

pulse frequency control

Pulse control at variable frequency and fixed pulse duration.

pulse number

The number of non-simultaneous symmetrical direct or indirect commutations from one principal arm to another which occur during one elementary period.

pulse width modulation control

PWM control (abbreviation)

Pulse control in which the pulse width or frequency or both are modulated within each fundamental period to produce a certain output waveform.

Q Edit

quenching

The termination of current flow in an arm without commutation.

quenching voltage

The voltage which causes quenching of the current.

P Edit

power electronic capacitor

A power capacitor intended to be used in power electronic equipment and capable of operating continuously under non-sinusoidal current or voltage.

R Edit

reactive power converter

A converter for reactive power compensation that generates or consumes reactive power without the flow of active power except for the power losses in the converter.

rated AC voltage (Un) (capacitor)

The maximum operating peak recurrent voltage of either polarity of a reversing type waveform for which the capacitor has been designed.[y][z][aa]

rated DC voltage (Un) (capacitor)

The maximum operating peak voltage of either polarity but of a non-reversing type wave form, for which the capacitor has been designed, for continuous operation.

real no-load direct voltage

The actual mean direct voltage at zero direct current.

(electronic) (power) rectification

Electronic conversion from AC to DC

rectification factor

For rectification, the ratio of the DC power to the fundamental input power.

rectifier

An AC/DC converter for rectification.

regenerative arm

A valve arm which transfers a part of the power from the load side to the source side.

(electronic) (power) resistance control

Control using the continuous variation of the resistance of electronic devices.

resistive direct voltage regulation

The direct voltage regulation due to resistance (threshold voltages of electronic valve devices excluded).

resonant converter

A converter using (a) resonant circuit(s) to provide commutation or to reduce switching losses.

resonant frequency (fr) (capacitor)

The lowest frequency at which the impedance of the capacitor becomes minimum.

reversible converter

A converter in which the direction of the power flow is reversible.

reverse blocking state

the non-conducting state of a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices when reverse voltage is applied between its main terminals (electrodes).

reverse blocking valve device

A valve device which is capable of blocking a specified direct voltage applied in its non-conducting direction.

reverse breakdown

A failure that permanently deprives a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices of its property to block reverse voltage.

ripple voltage (on the DC side)

The peak-to-peak alternating voltage component of the voltage on the DC side of a converter.

S Edit

slave operation

A mode of operation of stabilized power supplies achieving coordinated control of interconnected stabilized supplies by setting the master supply alone.

self-commutation

A commutation where the commutating voltage is supplied by components within the converter or the electronic switch.

self-healing metallized dielectric capacitor

A capacitor, the electrodes of which are deposited on the dielectric (usually by evaporation); in the event of breakdown of the dielectric, the capacitor restores itself.

semiconductor converter

An power converter with semiconductor valve devices.[ab]

semiconductor switch

An electronic power switch with semiconductor valve devices.[ac]

semiconductor valve device

An electronic valve device which is a semiconductor device.

sequential phase control

Asymmetrical phase control such that the delay angles are determined according to a given sequence.

single converter

A current stiff reversible AC/DC converter with direct current in one direction.

single-way connection (of a converter)

A converter connection such that the current through each of the phase terminals of the AC circuit is unidirectional.

snubber (circuit)

A subcircuit connected to one or more electronic valve devices in order to relieve it (them) of stress as for instance overvoltage transients, switching losses, high rate of rise of current or voltage, etc.[ad]

stabilized current characteristic

A characteristic with a stabilized output current.

stabilized output characteristic

A forced characteristic with an output quantity which is stabilized with respect to changes of influence quantities.

stabilized voltage characteristic

A characteristic with a stabilized output voltage.

stabilization

In the field of power electronics the reduction of the effect of changes of influence quantities on the output quantity.

stabilized power supply

In the field of power electronics an equipment which takes electrical energy from a source and supplies it stabilized by means inside the equipment to one or more pairs of output terminals.

stage (of a series connection)

A part of a series connection of two or more converter connections consisting of one or more parallel connected converter connections.

steady-state condition (capacitor)

Thermal equilibrium attained by the capacitor at constant output and at constant cooling-air temperature.

symmetrical phase control

Phase control with equal delay angles in all principal arms of a fully controllable converter connection or commutating group.

switched valve device

A controllable valve device which may be turned on and off by a control signal.

T Edit

tangent of the loss angle (tanδ) of a capacitor

The ratio between the equivalent series resistance and the capacitive reactance of a capacitor at specified sinusoidal alternating voltage and frequency.

threshold voltage (of an electronic valve device)

The value of the voltage obtained at the intersection of the voltage axis and the straight line approximation of the on-state characteristic of an electronic valve device.

transfer factor (of a DC converter)

The ratio of the voltage on the load side and the voltage on the source side.

transition current

The mean direct current of a converter connection when the direct current(s) of the commutation group(s) become(s) intermittent when decreasing the current.

trigger advance angle

The time expressed in angular measure by which the trigger pulse is advanced with respect to the reference instant.[ae]

trigger delay angle

The time expressed in angular measure by which the trigger pulse is delayed with respect to the reference instant in the case of phase control.[af]

triggering

The control action to achieve firing of a latching valve device or an arm consisting of such devices.

tolerance band

With stabilized power supplies the range of steady-state values of a stabilized output quantity lying between specified limits of deviation from a preset value, e.g. a nominal value.

total direct voltage regulation

The direct voltage regulation including the effect of the AC system impedance.

total harmonic distortion THD

The ratio of the rms value of the harmonic content of an alternating quantity to the rms value of the fundamental component of the quantity.

turn-off arm

An auxiliary arm which temporarily takes over the current directly from a conducting valve arm, consisting of one or more latching valve devices which cannot be turned off by a control signal.

two-quadrant converter

An AC/DC or DC converter with two possible directions of DC power flow associated with one direction of direct current and two directions of direct voltage or vice versa.

U Edit

uniform connection

A connection with either all principal arms controllable or all principal arms non-controllable.

V Edit

valve device assembly

An electrically and mechanically combined assembly of electronic valve devices or stacks, complete with all its connections and auxiliaries in its own mechanical structure.[ag]

valve device blocking

An operation to prevent further turn-on of a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices by inhibiting the control signals.

valve device commutation

A method of self-commutation in which the commutating voltage is created by turning off the conducting electronic valve device by a control signal.[ah]

valve device quenching

A method of quenching in which the quenching is performed by the electronic valve device itself.

valve device stack

A single structure of one or more electronic valve devices with its (their) associated mounting(s) and auxiliaries if any.

voltage stiff AC/DC converter

An electronic AC/DC converter having an essentially smooth voltage on the DC side provided e.g. by a low impedance path for the harmonic currents.

voltage source inverter

voltage fed inverter

A voltage stiff inverter.




Annuity

A fixed sum of money paid to someone every year, often as a pension.


Asset

An item of property owned by a person or company regarded as having a value, and which can meet a debt.


Back of House

Support personnel in a financial services company.


BACS

"Bankers' Automated Clearing Services" - electronic financial transaction service, often used to pay employees.


Bail out

The giving of financial assistance to a failing business to save it from collapse.


Bank of England

The central bank for the UK. It acts as the government's bank, issues currency, oversees monetary policy and sets interest rates.


BIC

Bank Identifier Code - a number used to identify each bank and branch.


Blue chip

Adjective used to describe high quality and specifically in the banking world to describe stocks which are a reliable investment, but less so than gilt-edged stock. Originates either from a high value poker chip, or from a sliver of diamond.


Bond

A loan to a corporate or government for a defined period at a fixed interest rate.


Boom and bust

A process of economic expansion and contraction, often in repeated cycles.


Boutique

An investment bank which offers some but not all banking services, generally in corporate finance.


Broker

A person who buys and sells stocks for others in return for a commission.


Budget, the 

Government's plans for the fiscal year.


Bulge bracket

The largest multinational investment banks.


Capital

Assets which are available for a purpose such as investment or starting a company. It is different to money because money is used only to purchase things, capital is used to generate wealth, e.g. through investment.


Capital market

The financial system which raises capital by dealing in shares, bonds and long term investments.


Cash flow

The amount of money being transferred in and out of a business, affecting liquidity.


Chancellor of the Exchequer

The chief finance minister of the UK who prepares the Budget.


Collateral

Assets that are offered to secure a loan or type of credit


Commodity

A raw material that can be bought or sold such as coffee or coal.


Credit

A payment received. Alternatively, an agreement to repay something of value in the future. Thirdly, the borrowing capacity of a person or company.


Credit rating


An assessment of a particular issuer's credit worthiness which results in a rating being assigned. Ratings range from AAA (very high) to D (in default). Several companies study issuers and make ratings decisions, including Moody's and Standard & Poor's. 


Debit

A payment made. 


Default

Failure to repay a loan.


Diversification

The strategy of investing broadly across a number of different investments to reduce risk; a hallmark of mutual fund investing.


Domiciled

Reside or be based.


Duty

A tax levied on goods not humans


Emerging market

A country which is developing the characteristics of a developed market, but is not yet fully developed. Normally a country experiencing rapid growth and industrialisation.


Exposure

Being placed at risk of financial losses.


Financial Instrument

A document involving monetary value which can be equity based, represent ownership of an asset or represent a loan made to an owner of an asset. They are tradeable packages of capital. Essentially, it is an equity, asset or loan.


Fiscal

Government revenue, e.g. taxes.


Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae

Two American institutions involved with mortgages. They were heavily involved in the causes of the credit crunch of 2008 as they were over exposed to risk.


Front Office

The sales personnel and finance employees - normally where revenues are generated.


FTSE 100

"Financial Times Stock Exchange", pronounced "futsie" - a share index of 100 companies on the London Stock Exchange with the highest market capitalisation. Its rises and falls are used as a gauge of business prosperity.


GDP

"Gross Domestic Product" - the monetary value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period, usually annually.


Gold Standard

A now obsolete exchange whereby the value of a currency is defined by gold.


Golden Rule of Banking

Short term transactions should be financed with short term money, and long term transactions with long term funds.


Gordon Gekko

Fictional stockbroker from the 1987 film Wall Street who has become a byline for greed thanks to his (mis)quote "greed is good".


Government bond

A bond issued by a national government to finance spending. While this means the bond is free of credit risk because the government can always pay the debt by raising taxes or printing money, it does depend on a stable political system.


Gross

The full amount of income, profit or interest without any deductions from tax or costs.


Hedge

An attempt to protect against loss on a bet or investment by making a compensating transaction.


Hedge fund

Investments of a few (normally wealthy) people pooled together and managed professionally. Their goal is to aggressively maximise return on the investment but the term actually originates from their previous strategy of "hedging risk".


HMRC

"Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs" - the UK Government department tasked with collecting taxes, paying some forms of state support and administering some regulatory regimes such as the national minimum wage.


Holding company

A parent corporation, limited liability company or limited partnership that owns enough voting stock in another company to control its policies and management. This means the holding company is protected against the other company's losses or liabilities, but reaps the rewards of its profits. It can also be based in jurisdictions with lower tax rates while allowing the other company to continue to operate wherever.


IMF - International Monetary Fund

Created to promote monetary and exchange stability in the global economy. This means it monitors financial developments around the world and lends funds to needy countries.


Inflation

An increase in prices which means that the purchasing power of money falls - in other words you get less for your money than you used to.


Interest

Money paid regularly as a charge for borrowing money, typically an annual percentage rate.


IPO - Initial Public Offering

The first sale of a company's shares to the public, also known as a stock market listing or flotation. Often used as a means for a young company to raise capital to expand.


Junk bond 

Risky investments which can offer higher yields than safer bonds. Often issued by companies with a low credit rating as investors demand higher rewards as compensation for the risk of investing in them.


Lehman Brothers 

A bank whose bankruptcy and collapse signalled the beginning of the 2008 credit crunch.


Leverage 

Borrowing capital to finance an investment much larger than that which the borrower can afford with their own cash, in order to increase the potential return of the investment. For example, instead of using £200,000 to buy one house to sell on for £220,000, the investor could split their money across 10 houses priced at £200,000 and pay £20,000 to each and borrow the money to pay the rest.


Then they could sell the houses for £220,000 x 10 and make £200,000 profit, not the £20,000 they make on buying a house entirely with their own money. The bigger the ratio of borrowed money to owned, the more leveraged they are. Likewise a company which has £10 million can borrow £20 million and have £30 million to spend on growth, without increasing its equity and diluting its shares.


Liability

A company's debts that arise during its business operations, e.g. loans.


LIBOR - London Interbank Offered Rate

A rate which some leading banks charge each other for short-term loans. It is used to calculate interest rates on loans throughout the world.


Liquidation

When a business is terminated or bankrupt, its assets are sold to pay creditors.


Liquidity

The measure of how quickly an investment can be turned into cash. A mutual fund generally is considered a very liquid investment, because shares can be redeemed at any time. In contrast, a house is a very illiquid investment.


LSE - London Stock Exchange

The primary stock exchange in the UK. It has 350 companies from 50 countries.


Maturity 

The finite time period at the end of which the financial instrument stops and the principle is repaid with interest.


Merger

The combining of two or more companies.


Mezzanine 

A type of financing which combines debt and equity financing. It is debt capital which gives the lender the right to ownership and equity if the loan is not paid. It is often quite high risk so it can also be high yield for the lender. The word is derived from the Latin for "middle" as the risk is medium.


Microfinance

A system to allow low-income individuals or groups who cannot access normal financial services to save, lend or insure themselves. Its goal is to make these low-income demographics become self-sufficient.


Net

Gross income which has had tax deducted.


Options

An agreement for the right to buy or sell a financial asset at an agreed price during a certain time period. If the price of the asset rises, the option buyer can buy it at the agreed lower price and sell for a profit. On the other hand, if the price drops, the option writer can sell at the agreed price which is now higher, making themselves a profit instead.


PAYE - Pay as you earn

Employers deduct income tax from employees' paycheques and remit it to the government.


Penny stock

Originally denoting stocks with less than a $1 a share, they now can refer to stocks with more worth but which still operate outside of the major exchanges. They are generally very illiquid.


Portfolio

The collective noun for financial assets held by investors or managed by financial professionals.


Public company

A company who has issued securities through an IPO and consequently the value of their company is determined by the markets.


Quarter

Three months of the financial calender, often used as a basis for reporting performance. Often expressed as Q1 Q2 Q3 and Q4.


Recession

When two consecutive quarters record negative economic growth.


Redeem

Repay a financial instrument at its maturity date.


Remittance

Sending money to pay a bill, invoice, tax or similar.


Retail banks

Banks which provide high street services such as savings accounts and mortgages.


Securities

A financial instrument which can be either a stock, a bond or an option.


Share index

A measure of change in an economy or securities market.


Shares

Either a financial asset or a unit of ownership interest in a company. 


SME 

Small and Medium Sized Enterprises


Speculation

Essentially the same as an investment but with a much higher risk of losing the initial outlay, though with a potential for a very high return. It sometimes has negative connotations such as irresponsibility.


Stocks

The same as shares and equity.


SWIFT - Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunications

A system for secure financial transactions such as transfers.


Takeover

When one company buys another company. Occasionally a publicly listed company will be acquired in a hostile take over against its will when the buying company suddenly buys all the shares.


Tax avoidance

A legal attempt to minimise the amount of tax owed.


Tax evasion

An illegal attempt to mimimise the mount of tax owed.


The Treasury

Government department responsible for formulating and implementing financial and economic policy.


Trader

Someone who  enagages in the transfer of financial assets in a market, but for a much shorter time than an investor.


Volatility 

Volatility refers to the amount of fluctuation in price of a security. Generally speaking, the higher the volatility the riskier the investment.


Wall Street (NY Stock Exchange)

The original home of the New York Stock Exchange and historic headquarters of the largest US banks. A collective noun for the financial commnuity in NY.


Wolf of Wall Street

Jordan Belfort, the subject of a Leonardo diCaprio film, who was a stockbroker convicted of fraud.


World Bank 

An international organisation dedicated to aiding developing nations by providing finance, advice and research.


Yield

The income return on an investment, usually expressed as a percentage based on the investment's cost.